Thermodynamic design of hydrogen liquefaction systems with helium or neon Brayton refrigerator

A thermodynamic study is carried out for the design of hydrogen liquefaction systems with helium (He) or neon (Ne) Brayton refrigerator. This effort is motivated by our immediate goal to develop a small-capacity (100 L/h) liquefier for domestic use in Korea. Eight different cycles are proposed and their thermodynamic performance is investigated in comparison with the existing liquefaction systems. The proposed cycles include the standard and modified versions of He Brayton refrigerators whose lowest temperature is below 20 K. The Brayton refrigerator is in direct thermal contact with the hydrogen flow at atmospheric pressure from ambient-temperature gas to cryogenic liquid. The Linde-Hampson system pre-cooled by a Ne Brayton refrigerator is also considered. Full cycle analysis is performed with the real properties of fluids to estimate the figure of merit (FOM) under an optimized operation condition. It is concluded that He Brayton refrigerators are feasible for this small-scale liquefaction, because a reasonably high efficiency can be achieved with simple and safe (low-pressure) operation. The complete cycles with He Brayton refrigerator are presented for the development of a prototype, including the ortho-to-para conversion.     

An efficient multi-stage Brayton–JT cycle for liquefaction of natural gas

Combined multi-stage Brayton–JT refrigeration cycles are investigated as a governmental effort in Korea to develop an original liquefaction process of natural gas in accordance with recent demand of higher efficiency and larger capacity. Based upon thermodynamic optimization theory, a combined refrigeration system is proposed with nitrogen (N2) Brayton cycle, ethylene (C2) JT cycle, and propane (C3) JT cycles, which are used for cooling the feed gas in a series of heat exchangers. Since no mixed refrigerants are used, this system is simple in operation and robust in reliability. A complete cycle design is presented to confirm its feasibility and estimate the liquefaction performance. It is expected that the proposed N2–C2–C3 cycle could have a reasonably high efficiency and the potential of great liquefaction capacity. Next steps are underway for patent application and practical process development.     

Thermodynamic analysis of Collins helium liquefaction cycle

The present paper gives a thermodynamic analysis of the Collins helium liquefaction cycle with two reciprocating expanders. The results of the analysis make it clear that, for a given efficiency of expanders and effectiveness of heat exchangers, there exists an optimum mass flow fraction of total helium gas mass flow rate that should be diverted through the expanders for which liquid yield is maximum and net power input is minimum. The analysis quantitatively studies the effect of expander efficiency and heat exchanger effectiveness on the performance of the liquefier. It gives final steady state temperature distribution across the cycle, which is essential data for carrying out the preliminary design of various components in the cycle.     

Flow field analysis of high-speed helium turboexpander for cryogenic refrigeration and liquefaction cycles

Turboexpander constitutes one of the vital components of Claude cycle based helium refrigerators and liquefiers that are gaining increasing technological importance. These turboexpanders which are of radial inflow in configuration are generally high-speed micro turbines, due to the low molecular weight and density of helium. Any improvement in efficiency of these machines requires a detailed understanding of the flow field. Computational Fluid Dynamics analysis (CFD) has emerged as a necessary tool for the determination of the flow fields in cryogenic turboexpanders, which is often not possible through experiments.In the present work three-dimensional transient flow analysis of a cryogenic turboexpander for helium refrigeration and liquefaction cycles were performed using Ansys CFX®, to understand the flow field of a high-speed helium turboexpander, which in turn will help in taking appropriate decisions regarding modifications of established design methodology for improved efficiency of these machines. The turboexpander is designed based on Balje's n_sd_s diagram and the inverse design blade profile generation formalism prescribed by Hasselgruber and Balje. The analyses include the study of several losses, their origins, the increase in entropy due to these losses, quantification of losses and the effects of various geometrical parameters on these losses. Through the flow field analysis it was observed that in the nozzle, flow separation at the nozzle blade suction side and trailing edge vortices resulted in loss generation, which calls for better nozzle blade profile. The turbine wheel flow field analysis revealed that the significant geometrical parameters of the turbine wheel blade like blade inlet angle, blade profile, tip clearance height and trailing edge thickness need to be optimised for improved performance of the turboexpander. The detailed flow field analysis in this paper can be used to improve the mean line design methodology for turboexpanders used in helium refrigeration and liquefaction cycles.     

Thermodynamic design of natural gas liquefaction cycles for offshore application

A thermodynamic study is carried out for natural gas liquefaction cycles applicable to offshore floating plants, as partial efforts of an ongoing governmental project in Korea. For offshore liquefaction, the most suitable cycle may be different from the on-land LNG processes under operation, because compactness and simple operation are important as well as thermodynamic efficiency. As a turbine-based cycle, closed Claude cycle is proposed to use NG (natural gas) itself as refrigerant. The optimal condition for NG Claude cycle is determined with a process simulator (Aspen HYSYS), and the results are compared with fully-developed C3-MR (propane pre-cooled mixed refrigerant) JT cycles and various N2 (nitrogen) Brayton cycles in terms of efficiency and compactness. The newly proposed NG Claude cycle could be a good candidate for offshore LNG processes.     

Thermodynamic design of methane liquefaction system based on reversed-Brayton cycle

A thermodynamic design is performed for reversed-Brayton refrigeration cycle to liquefy methane separated from landfill gas (LFG) in distributed scale. Objective of the design is to find the most efficient operating conditions for a skid-mount type of liquefaction system that is capable of LNG production at 160 l/h. Special attention is paid on liquefying counterflow heat exchanger, because the temperature difference between cold refrigerant and methane is smallest at the middle of heat exchanger, which seriously limits the overall thermodynamic performance of the liquefaction system. Nitrogen is selected as refrigerant, as it is superior to helium in thermodynamic efficiency. In order to consider specifically the size effect of heat exchangers, the performance of plate-fin heat exchangers is estimated with rigorous numerical calculations by incorporating a commercial code for properties of methane and the refrigerant. Optimal conditions in operating pressure and heat exchanger size are presented and discussed for prototype construction under a governmental project in Korea.     

Applicability of equations of state for modeling helium systems

Proper design of helium systems with large number of components and involved configurations such as helium liquefiers/refrigerators requires the use of tools like process simulators. The accuracy of the simulation results, to a great extent, depends on the accuracy of property data. For computation of thermodynamic properties of helium, the 32-parameter MBWR equation of state proposed by McCarty and Arp [1] is widely used. However, it is computationally involved, makes the simulation process more time-consuming and sometimes leads to computational difficulties such as numerical oscillations, divergence in solution especially, when the process operates over a wide thermodynamic region and is constituted of many components. Substituting MBWR EOS by simpler equations of state (EOS(s)) at selected thermodynamic planes, where the simpler EOS(s) have the similar accuracy as that of MBWR EOS may enhance ease of computation. In the present paper, the methodology to implement this concept has been elucidated with examples of steady state and dynamic simulation of helium liquefier/refrigerator based on Collins cycle. The above concept can be applied to thermodynamic analysis of other process cycles where computation of fluid property is involved.     

Performance improvement of nitrogen expansion liquefaction process for small-scale LNG plant

Liquefaction of natural gas is usually a kind of high energy consumption process. Therefore, any performance improvement of the liquefaction process will definitely reduce the energy consumption. Nitrogen expansion liquefaction process is regarded as a suitable process for small-scale LNG plant due to its simplicity, quick startup and convenient maintenance. However, the disadvantage of the process is high-energy consumption. An efficient way to lower its energy consumption is to add a precooling cycle. In this paper, two different precooling cycles including propane precooling cycle and R410a precooling cycle are proposed to the nitrogen expansion liquefaction process to improve the liquefaction process performance. Unit energy consumption as an objective function is optimized in terms of several key operating parameters. Based on the optimization results, the effects of the liquefaction rate and methane recovery rate on the process performance are investigated. The thermodynamic analyses are adopted to the processes as well as the two precooling cycles. Furthermore, the exergy analyses of the main equipment are also presented and discussed. The results show that the unit energy consumption for the nitrogen expansion process with R410a precooling and with propane precooling reduce by 22.74% and 20.02% respectively, compared with nitrogen expansion process without precooling.     

撬装型天然气液化装置流程设计

设计了两套典型的撬装型天然气液化流程,综合多种液化流程的优点,提出了节能新型混合制冷剂液化流程。进行了模拟计算,并比较了流程的关键参数。结果表明,在没有丙烷预冷的前提下,采用N 2-CH 4膨胀机液化流程优于混合制冷剂液化流程;节能新型混合制冷剂液化流程简便灵活、能耗低、液化率高,适应于撬装型LNG装置。     

A novel approach for operational optimization of multi-stage refrigeration cycles in gas refineries

The efficient use of energy in refrigeration cycles of gas liquefaction plants is a contemporary topic of interest. The previous optimization studies on refrigeration cycles have not considered the components' operational limitations. By considering the fact that in operating plants, all constraints must be thoroughly taken into account, this paper presents a novel approach for operational optimization of in-use refrigeration cycles which takes into account the operational limitations of the components as well as the interaction between the refrigeration cycle and the core process. This novel approach exploits a combination of thermodynamic principles and pinch technology to express the multi-stage refrigeration cycles' power consumption as a function of several independent variables. To examine the applicability of the proposed approach, it is used to optimize a three-stage refrigeration cycle in a propane liquefaction plant. About 15.4% reduction in the specific power consumption is achieved.     

EAST氦制冷机静态模拟分析

采用机理建模的方法建立了EAST制冷机单元部件和流程的静态数学模型,用C++语言开发出对应静态模型的模拟计算软件,应用该软件分别对4.5 K液化/制冷和4.5 K液化/制冷+3.5 K制冷流程进行静态模拟计算,并分析了4.5 K液化/制冷+3.5 K制冷模式下制冷机各单元部件的有效能损失以及制冷量与各项热力学参数之间的...     

Analysis and optimisation of a mixed fluid cascade (MFC) process

A mixed fluid cascade (MFC) process that comprises three refrigeration cycles has great capacity for large-scale LNG production, which consumes a great amount of energy. Therefore, any performance enhancement of the liquefaction process will significantly reduce the energy consumption. The MFC process is simulated and analysed by use of proprietary software, Aspen HYSYS. The effect of feed gas pressure, LNG storage pressure, water-cooler outlet temperature, different pre-cooling regimes, liquefaction, and sub-cooling refrigerant composition on MFC performance are investigated and presented. The characteristics of its excellent numerical calculation ability and the user-friendly interface of MATLAB™ and powerful thermo-physical property package of Aspen HYSYS are combined. A genetic algorithm is then invoked to optimise the MFC process globally. After optimisation, the unit power consumption can be reduced to 4.655 kW h/kmol, or 4.366 kW h/kmol on condition that the compressor adiabatic efficiency is 80%, or 85%, respectively. Additionally, to improve the process further, with regards its thermodynamic efficiency, configuration optimisation is conducted for the MFC process and several configurations are established. By analysing heat transfer and thermodynamic performances, the configuration entailing a pre-cooling cycle with three pressure levels, liquefaction, and a sub-cooling cycle with one pressure level is identified as the most efficient and thus optimal: its unit power consumption is 4.205 kW h/kmol. Additionally, the mechanism responsible for the weak performance of the suggested liquefaction cycle configuration lies in the unbalanced distribution of cold energy in the liquefaction temperature range.     

基于夹点技术的修正布雷顿循环优化分析

为提高修正布雷顿循环氦液化系统的液化率及效率,基于夹点技术的优化方法对该系统进行优化分析。通过建立夹点技术的T-H组合曲线图分析系统的夹点所在、利用Fortran模拟计算来定性、定量地分析系统的主要性能指标,如系统压缩机出口压力、膨胀机中间压力等与系统的液化率及效率之间的关系。发现当膨胀机中间压力为600—800 MPa时,系统的液化率和效率最高。     

半冷半压式液化石油气船再液化装置研究

再液化装置是半冷半压式液化石油气船的关键设备,在保障液化石油气船运营的安全性和经济怀方面发挥着重要作用。首先对大型半冷半压式液化石油气船再液化装置适用的制冷循环类型进行了分析,然后在液化热力参数计算的基础上对低温液化流程进行了热力计算与优化,最后对再液化装置进行了有效能分析,提出了减少再液化装置有效能损失的措施。     

Effect of rotation on the flow behaviour in a high-speed cryogenic microturbine used in helium applications

The complex flow characteristics in a high-speed helium microturbine used in cryogenic refrigeration and liquefaction cycles are highly influenced by the effects of rotation. In order to enhance the turbine performance and to improve the preliminary design process of the turboexpander, the flow characteristics within the turbine blade passage need to be investigated at different rotational speeds. Here, three-dimensional unsteady flow analysis of a high speed cryogenic microturbine used in helium applications was carried out using Ansys CFX^®. The loss generated by the various secondary and vortical flows for the different cases was quantified in terms of entropy loss coefficient. The loss generating mechanism was also assessed by analysing the velocity vectors, entropy contours and the behaviour of the vortex cores. With change in speed the influence of scraping flow due to relative casing motion and the blade loading on the flow characteristics was found to vary significantly. At lower speeds, the scraping flow decreases and thus augments the tip leakage flow which in turn interacts with the suction side leg of the leading edge vortex to form a single large vortex. This combined vortex increases the velocity defect and thus leads to increased loss generation. The analysis of the vortex core velocity and the blade loading diagram revealed the need for modifications in blade profile for improved turbine performance. Furthermore, the comparison of the CFD results with the Balje's n_sd_s chart showed remarkable variations, the results of which can be used to modify the chart for the design of efficient cryogenic microturbines for helium applications.     

Effect of multi-stream heat exchanger on performance of natural gas liquefaction with mixed refrigerant

A thermodynamic study is carried out to investigate the effect of multi-stream heat exchanger on the performance of natural gas (NG) liquefaction with mixed refrigerant (MR). A cold stream (low-pressure MR) is in thermal contact with opposite flow of two hot streams (high-pressure MR and NG feed) at the same time. In typical process simulation with commercial software (such as Aspen HYSYS®), the liquefaction performance is estimated with a method of minimum temperature approach, simply assuming that two hot streams have the same temperature. In this study, local energy balance equations are rigorously solved with temperature-dependent properties of MR and NG feed, and are linked to the thermodynamic cycle analysis. The figure of merit (FOM) is quantitatively examined in terms of UA (the product of overall heat transfer coefficient and heat exchange area) between respective streams. In a single-stage MR process, it is concluded that the temperature profile from HYSYS is difficult to realize in practice, and the FOM value from HYSYS is an over-estimate, but can be closely achieved with a proper heat-exchanger design. It is also demonstrated that there exists a unique optimal ratio in three UA’s, and no direct heat exchanger between hot streams is recommended.     

Thermodynamic optimization of reverse Brayton cycles of different configurations for cryogenic applications

The thermodynamic optimization of differing Reverse Brayton Refrigeration (RBR) cycle configurations is presented in this study. These cycle configurations include: Conventional 1-stage compression cycle; Conventional 2-stage compression cycle; 1-stage compression Modified cycle with intermediate cooling of the recuperator using an auxiliary cooler; and an Integrated 2-stage expansion RBR cycle. For high pressure ratio applications, multi-stage compressors with intercooling are considered. Analytical solutions for the conventional cycles are developed including thermal and fluid flow irreversibilities of the recuperators and all heat exchangers in addition to the compression and expansion processes. Exergy analysis is performed and the exergy destruction of different components of the RBR cycles for different configurations is presented and the effects of important system parameters on performance are investigated. Thermodynamic optimization of the cycles with intermediate cooling of the recuperator is included. Effects of the 2nd law/exergy efficiency of the auxiliary cooler on the total system efficiencies are presented.     

Control optimisation of CO2 cycles for medium temperature retail food refrigeration systems

This paper describes a detailed procedure into the investigation of optimised control strategies for CO₂ cycles in medium temperature retail food refrigeration systems. To achieve this objective, an integrated model was developed composing of a detailed condenser/gas cooler model, a simplified compressor model, an isenthalpic expansion process and constant evaporating temperature and superheating. The CO₂ system can operate subcritically or transcritically depending on the ambient temperature. For a transcritical operation, a prediction can be made for optimised refrigerant discharge pressures from thermodynamic cycle calculations. When the system operates in the subcritical cycle, a floating discharge pressure control strategy is employed and the effect of different transitional ambient temperatures separating subcritical and transcritical cycles on system performance is investigated. The control strategy assumes variable compressor speed and adjustable air flow for the gas cooler/condenser to be modulated to achieve the constant cooling load requirement at different ambient conditions.     

Fundamental thermodynamics of ideal absorption cycles

Starting from the representation of a real absorption refrigeration cycle on a temperature-entropy diagram, step-by-step idealisations of the binary mixture, together with the thermodynamic transformations are considered, in order to derive the ideal thermodynamic absorption cycle performance and temperature formulae. It is demonstrated that the ideal absorption cycle is the combination of a Carnot driving cycle with a reverse Carnot cooling cycle. The resorption cycle is analysed in the same manner. Information is included on absorption cooling with heat recovery cycles, heat pumps and temperature amplifiers. From the analysis of single-stage cycles, and by superimposing absorption cycles operating at different temperatures and utilising specific residual heat of the higher temperature sub-cycles, the performance and temperature relations of double, triple and multistage cycles are derived. Special attention is given to three types of triple-stage cycle and their ideal equivalence is demonstrated and represted on the pressure-temperature-concentration (PTX) diagram. A simple hybrid absorption-compression cycle is analysed and the results are compared with those of ideal cold generation cycles (combinations of driving and cooling cycles). Consideration is also given to cold generation systems. Finally, the validation of the fundamental thermodynamics of absorption cycles is presented by applying an exergy analysis. This paper presents the thermodynamic principles involved to obtain simple formulae, in a similar way to the Carnot cycle in order to convey the ideal theoretical limitations.     

Discussion on refrigeration cycle for regenerative cryocoolers

Based on review and analysis of thermodynamic efficiency ε of the Carnot cycle and the cycle with two isothermal and two polytropic processes, another thermodynamic cycle with two isentropic and two polytropic processes, which can achieve the Carnot value of thermodynamic efficiency, is testified theoretically. Thermodynamic efficiency expressions of a number of ideal regenerative refrigeration cycles are derived, including the ideal pulse tube refrigeration cycle. A classified branch chart and a plot of ideal thermodynamic efficiency of regenerative refrigeration cycles are given for the purpose of comparison.