Laser tissue welding: laser spot size and beam profile studies

Evaluates the effect of laser spot diameter and beam profile on the shape of the thermal denaturation zone produced during laser tissue welding, 2-cm-long full thickness incisions were made on the epilated backs of guinea pigs in vivo. India ink was used as an absorber and clamps were used to appose the incision edges. Welding was performed using continuous-wave 1.06-μm, Nd:YAG laser radiation scanned over the incisions to produce ~100-ms pulses. Laser spot diameters of 1, 2, 4, and 6 mm were studied, with powers of 1, 4, 16, and 36 W, respectively. The irradiance remained constant at 127 W/cm². Monte Carlo simulations were also conducted to examine the effect of laser spot size and beam profile on the distribution of photons absorbed in the tissue. The laser spot diameter was varied from 1 to 6 mm, Gaussian, flat-top, dual Gaussian, and dual flat-top beam profiles were studied. The experimental results showed that 1-, 2-, 4-, and 6 mm-diameter spots produced thermal denaturation to an average depth of 570, 970, 1470, and 1900 μm, respectively. Monte Carlo simulations demonstrated that the most uniform distribution of photon absorption is achieved using large diameter dual flat-top beams     

Effects of compression on soft tissue optical properties

Tissue optical properties are necessary parameters for prescribing light dosimetry in photomedicine. In many diagnostic or therapeutic applications where optical fiber probes are used, pressure is often applied to the tissue to reduce index mismatch and increase light transmittance. In this paper, we have measured in vitro optical properties as a function of pressure with a visible-IR spectrophotometer. A spectral range of 400-1800 mm with a spectral resolution of 5 nm was used for all measurements. Skin specimens of a Hispanic donor and two Caucasian donors were obtained from the tissue bank. Bovine aorta and sclera, and porcine sclera came from a local slaughter house. Each specimen, sandwiched between microscope slides, was compressed by a spring-loaded apparatus. Then diffuse reflectance and transmittance of each sample were measured at no load and at approximately 0.1, 1, and 2 kgf/cm². Under compression, tissue thicknesses were reduced up to 78%. Generally speaking, the reflectance decreased while the overall transmittance increased under compression. The absorption and reduced scattering coefficients were calculated using the inverse adding doubling method. Compared with the no-load controls, there was an increase in absorption and scattering coefficients among most of the compressed specimens     

High-Power $hbox{Yb}^{{bm 3}{bm +}}$-Doped Phosphate Fiber Amplifier

We report on the development of novel high-power light sources utilizing a $hbox{Yb}^{3+}$-doped phosphate fiber as the gain element. This host presents several key benefits over silica, particularly much higher $hbox{Yb}_{2} hbox{O}_{3}$ concentrations (up to 26 wt%), a 50% weaker stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) gain cross section, and the absence of observable photodarkening even at high population inversion. These properties result in a greatly increased SBS threshold compared to silica fibers, and therefore, potentially much higher output powers out of either a multimode large mode area or a single-mode fiber, which means in the latter case a higher beam quality. To quantify these predictions, we show through numerical simulations that double-clad phosphate fibers should produce as much as $sim$700 W of single-frequency output power in a step index, single-mode core. As a step in this direction, we report a short phosphate fiber amplifier doped with 12 wt% $hbox{Yb}_{2} hbox{O}_{3}$ that emits 16 W of single-frequency single-mode output. We also describe a single-mode phosphate fiber laser with a maximum output power of 57 W. The laser slope efficiency is currently limited by the fairly high fiber loss ( $sim$3 dB/m). Measurements indicate that 77% of this loss originates from impurity absorption, and the rest from scattering.      

Optimization of Broadband Gain Spectra of Cr $^{hbox{4}+}$:YAG Crystal Fiber Amplifier

In this paper, we present energy level, transition configuration, and numerical model of Cr³⁺/Cr⁴⁺:YAG crystal fiber amplifier for the first time, to the best of our knowledge. The rate and power propagation equations of the numerical model are solved and analyzed. The active ion concentration, length of the doped fiber, and pump power are optimized to maximize the bandwidth of the gain spectra. The effect of temperature on the gain spectra is also discussed. It is shown that based on analysis of the absorption spectra and emission spectra, Cr⁴⁺:YAG crystal is a three-level system, and the broadband gain of Cr ³⁺/Cr ⁴⁺ :YAG crystal fiber is attributed to the broad emission of Cr⁴⁺ ions, especially tetrahedral Cr ⁴⁺ in YAG. When excited at 800 nm, optimal fibers have ultrabroad gain spectra in the range of 1.2-1.65 mum, which cover the low-loss windows of the all-wave fiber without absorption peak caused by OH^- group.     

Quantitative optical biopsy of liver tissue ex vivo

The intensity of the intrinsic autofluorescence of the reduced form of nicotineamide adenine dinucleotid (NADH) of biological tissue depends on the local, cellular concentration of this coenzyme. It plays a dominant role in the Krebs cycle and, therefore, serves as an indicator for the vitality of the observed cells. Due to the individually and locally varying boundary conditions and optical tissue properties, which are scattering coefficients, absorption coefficients and an anisotropy factor g, the fluorescence signal needs to be rescaled. Rescaling methods use for instance the Kubelka-Munk theory or the photon migration theory. Our rescaling method is partly based on measurements and partly theoretically derived. By combining four methods, i.e., laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) of the time-resolved signal, biochemical concentration measurements. Monte Carlo simulations with typical optical parameters and microscopic investigations, we demonstrate that simultaneous detection of the fluorescence and backscattering signal can easily and accurately provide rescaled, quantitative values for the NADH concentrations     

Time-gated transillumination of objects in highly scattering mediausing a subpicosecond optical amplifier

We have developed an optical system that simultaneously selects and amplifies photons in a time window of less than 10 ps. This new subpicosecond optical amplifier allowed us to realize one-dimensional images of a striped pattern with a spatial resolution of 200-μm through a 30-mm liquid scattering medium. Monte Carlo simulations were performed to study the relative importance of parameters characterizing the medium and the time-gated amplifying system in relation to the image sharpness. The potential application of this system in medical imaging is discussed     

Fluorophore quantitation in tissue-simulating media with confocaldetection

Fluorescence measurements from tissue are increasingly being used as a medical diagnostic procedure to assess tissue malignancy or tissue function. Unfortunately, the reemitted fluorescent intensity measured from a tissue surface is not necessarily proportional to the fluorophore concentration because the light is altered by the tissue's intrinsic absorption and scattering properties. By measuring fluorescence from tissue volumes which are smaller than the average scattering length, the effects of the tissue's intrinsic absorption are diminished. In this study, experiments with tissue simulating phantoms are used, as well as Monte Carlo simulations of the experiment, to demonstrate the utility of point fluorescence detection for diagnostic measurements. Potential applications of this technique range from photosensitizer quantitation in vivo, pharmacokinetic measurements of fluorophore in different tissues, to any application where fluorophore quantification is required from a highly scattering medium     

Optical properties effects upon the collection efficiency of optical fibers in different probe configurations

When optical fibers are used for delivery and collection of light, two major factors affect the measurement of collected light: 1) light transport in the medium from the source to the detection fiber and 2) light coupling to the optical fiber (which depends on the angular distribution of photons entering the fiber). This paper studies the latter factor, describing how the efficiency of the coupling depends on the optical properties of the sample. The coupling dependence on optical properties is verified by comparing experimental data to a simple diffusion model and to a Monte Carlo (MC)-corrected diffusion model. Mean square errors were 7.9% and 1.4% between experiments and the diffusion, and experiments and the MC-corrected models, respectively. The efficiency of coupling was shown to be highly dependent on the numerical aperture (NA) of the optical fiber. However, for lower scattering, such as in soft tissues, the efficiency of coupling could vary two- and threefold from that predicted by fiber NA. The collection efficiency can be used as a practical guide for choosing optical fiber-based systems for biomedical applications.     

Impact of the Coulomb interaction on nano-scale silicon device characteristics

Monte Carlo simulations coupled self-consistently with the three-dimensional Poisson equation are carried out under the double-gate MOSFET structures. The Coulomb force experienced by an electron inside the device is directly evaluated by performing the Monte Carlo simulations with or without the full Coulomb interaction and the Coulomb force on the channel electron corresponding to plasmon excitations is clarified. It is pointed out that the consistency of the boundary condition is achieved only if the long-range Coulomb interaction is properly taken into account, and this is crucial for predicting reliable device characteristics in ultra-small devices. The drain current and transconductance are greatly reduced if the self-consistent potential fluctuations are taken into account.     

光子运动的蒙特卡罗方法用于LED灯具设计

采用了蒙特卡罗追迹LED灯光子运动,首先构造LED灯光源模型,确定光子运动方向,在光源点至LED灯曲面点之间计算光子频率衰减性,接着分析光子与封装曲面发生弹性散射相函数,材料线性吸收系数,双光子间吸收系数,三光子间吸收系数对光子碰撞的影响,在光子新运动方向确定后对其权重更新,同时大量的光子采用线性同余法产生,最后蒙特卡罗统计光子运动的误差。仿真实验给出了各种光子运动模拟结果,直观地反映了光子特性,为进一步研究复杂的LED灯提供了理论依据。     

Angular domain imaging of objects within highly scattering media using silicon micromachined collimating arrays

Optical imaging of objects within highly scattering media, such as tissue, requires the detection of ballistic/quasi-ballistic photons through these media. Recent works have used phase/coherence domain or time domain tomography (femtosecond laser pulses) to detect the shortest path photons through scattering media. This work explores an alternative, angular domain imaging, which uses collimation detection capabilities of small acceptance angle devices to extract photons emitted aligned closely to a laser source. It employs a high aspect ratio, micromachined collimating detector array fabricated by high-resolution silicon surface micromachining. Consider a linear collimating array of very high aspect ratio (200: 1) containing 51/spl times/1000 /spl mu/m etched channels with 102-/spl mu/m spacing over a 10-mm silicon width. With precise array alignment to a laser source, unscattered light passes directly through the channels to the charge coupled device detector and the channel walls absorb the scattered light at angles >0.29/spl deg/. Objects within a scattering medium were scanned quickly with a computer-controlled Z axis table. High-resolution images of 100-/spl mu/m-wide lines and spaces were detected at scattered-to-ballistic ratios of 5/spl times/10/sup 5/: 1, with objects located near the middle of the sample seen at even higher levels. At >5/spl times/10/sup 6/: 1 ratios, a uniform background of scattered illumination degrades the image contrast unless recovered by background subtraction. Monte Carlo simulation programs designed to test the angular domain imaging concept showed that the collimator detects the shortest path length photons, as in other optical tomography methods. Furthermore, the collimator acts as an optical filter to remove scattered light while preserving the image resolution. Simulations suggest smaller channels and longer arrays could enhance detection by >100.     

Surface roughness induced device variability: 3D <Emphasis Type="Italic">ab initio</Emphasis> Monte Carlo simulation study

It is expected that published results from drift diffusion simulation of oxide thickness fluctuations in nano-scale devices underestimates the true intrinsic device parameter variation by neglecting local variations in surface roughness scattering. We present initial results from 3D ‘bulk’ Monte Carlo simulation including an ab initio treatment of surface roughness scattering capable of capturing such transport variation. The scattering is included directly through the real space propagation of carriers in the fluctuating potential associated with a randomly generated interface. We apply this approach to simulate inversion layer mobility in order to validate the model before its possible application in device variability simulations. Qualitative agreement is found with universal mobility data and avenues for possible calibration of surface and simulation parameters are highlighted.     

On a simple and accurate quantum correction for Monte Carlo simulation

We investigate a quantum-correction method for Monte Carlo device simulation. The method consists of reproducing quantum mechanical density-gradient simulation by classical drift-diffusion simulation with modified effective oxide thickness and work function and using these modifications subsequently in Monte Carlo simulation. This approach is found to be highly accurate and can be used fully automatically in a technology computer-aided design (TCAD) workbench project. As an example, the methodology is applied to the Monte Carlo simulation of the on-current scaling in p- and n-type MOSFETs corresponding to a 65 nm node technology. In particular, it turns out that considering only the total threshold voltage shift still involves a significant difference to a Monte Carlo simulation based on the combined correction of oxide thickness and work function. Ultimately, this quantum correction permits to consider surface scattering as a combination of specular and diffusive scattering where the conservation of energy and parallel wave vector in the specular part takes stress-induced band structure modifications and hence the corresponding surface mobility changes on a physical basis into account.     

Thirty Years of Monte Carlo Simulations of Electronic Transport in Semiconductors: Their Relevance to Science and Mainstream VLSI Technology

We review briefly some aspects of the history of Monte Carlo simulations of electronic transport in semiconductors. In the early days their heavy computational cost rendered them suitable only to study problems of pure physics, as simpler models provided the answers necessary to design ‘electrostatically good’ devices. Now that scaling has taken another meaning (i.e., looking for alternative materials, crystal orientations, device geometries, etc.), Monte Carlo simulations may gain popularity once more, since they allow an efficient and reliable evaluation of speculative ideas. We show examples of both aspects of the results of Monte Carlo work.     

Introducing energy broadening in semiclassical Monte Carlo simulations

Combining an insight on the quantum transport given by the Wigner function formalism and the classical perturbation theory, an algorithm has been developed that allows the introduction of collisional broadening in semiclassical electron transport Monte Carlo (MC) simulations. In the proposed algorithm, electron energy and momentum are treated as independent variables; the laws of energy and momentum conservation are fulfilled at each scattering event, but the relationship between energy and momentum is not given by the traditional expression, since Bloch states are not eigenstates of the total Hamiltonian. The results obtained for a simple model semiconductor demonstrate that the non-physical instabilities observed in previous attempts to introduce collisional broadening in semiclassical MC simulations have been removed. The algorithm is suitable for application in MC simulations of realistic device models.     

Quantum Ensemble Monte Carlo simulation of silicon-based nanodevices

A Quantum Ensemble Monte Carlo (QEMC) simulator is used to calculate electrical characteristics and transient response of actual nanotransistors: both sub-50 nm CMOS N-MOSFETs and ultrathin double gate SOI transistors have been deeply studied. Doping profiles and oxide thickness have been selected to cope with the available specifications of the ITRS Roadmap. The Quantum corrected Ensemble Monte Carlo simulator (QEMC) has been used to self-consistently solve the Boltzmann Transport and Poisson equations in actual devices. Quantum effects are included through the Multi-Valley Effective Conduction Band Edge (MV-ECBE) technique, and adequate approaches for phonon and surface roughness scattering have been developed to include the effects of carrier quantization in pseudo-2DEG simulations.     

Mobility Variations in Ultra Small Devices due to Random Discrete Dopants

Scaling of conventional MOSFETs to channel lengths of 20 nm and below will require channel doping in the range of 10¹⁹ cm^?3. At such doping concentrations ionised impurity scattering may start to dominate over interface roughness scattering within the channel. Additionally, discrete doping variations, both in number and position, will become increasingly important in such small devices resulting in mobility variations from device to device. Such mobility variations will be in addition to the random dopant induced fluctuations due to the electrostatics. Here we report results from 3-D Ensemble Monte Carlo simulations that include ab-initio ionised impurity scattering, and has been developed to investigate mobility variations in small volumes comparable to the channel region of nano-scale MOSFETs.     

A CMOS DCO design using delay programmable differential latches and a novel digital control scheme

A novel 16-bit CMOS digitally controlled oscillator (DCO) is described. This CMOS DCO design is based on a delay programmable differential latch and a novel digital control scheme which yields improved phase noise characteristics. Simulations of a 4-stage CMOS DCO using the 0.5 μm Agilent CMOS process parameters achieved a controllable frequency range of 750 MHz–1.6 GHz with a monotone tuning range of around 1 GHz. Monte Carlo simulations indicate that the time-period jitter due to random supply voltage fluctuations is under 250 ps for worst-case considerations. Also, phase noise was found to be in the range of −175 dBc at a frequency of 600 KHz from the carrier at 1.5 GHz (for digital control word of 1512 H) after numerous iterations of Monte Carlo simulations. FFT analysis indicate a total harmonic distortion (THD) of around − 57 dB for the DCO output signal. This CMOS design would thus provide considerable performance enhancement in digital PLL applications.     

O3 /NaClO气液相氧化吸收剂同时脱硫脱硝试验研究

提出以O₃/NaClO为复合吸收剂对火电厂烟气进行同时脱硫脱硝的方法,研究了该方法在不同条件下的脱硫脱硝效率。模拟实际工况,给定SO₂与NO的初始质量浓度分别为600 mg/m³ 和500 mg /m³。模拟试验结果表明：在臭氧投加量为5.35 g/h,NaClO摩尔浓度为15 mmol/L,吸收液初始pH值为5,液气比为50 L/m³,反应温度为50 ℃时,脱硫和脱硝效率分别可达97.04%和95.08%。所研究的方法工艺操作简单,脱除SO₂和NO_x速度快,不存在堵塞、结垢等问题,若能有效降低O₃的生产成本,则具有较好的实用意义和推广应用前景。     

A First Principles Alloy Scattering Approach for Monte Carlo Hole Mobility Calculations

We present an ab-inito band-structure approach that can be applied for holes in Monte Carlo simulations of strained SiGe channel devices in order to remove the uncertainties of alloy scattering parameters along with addressing the effects of strain.