Colour meaning and consumer expectations

Deciding a colour for a product is a significant task for designers to attract consumer attention and communicate brand messages. It requires an initial analysis that explores consumer expectations within the sector, and this information is then used to inform development of a product design. This article discusses the application of the product colour development process during the initial phase of product design. Using a case study approach, one particular product category—a dishwashing liquid product was selected based on the suggestion from a leading U.K. consumer goods manufacturing company that colour is a major design factor for this product category. In the first phase of the study, interviews and an online survey were carried out with consumers (to explore what elements are important when they purchase a washing‐up liquid product). In the second phase of the study, a colour meaning experiment was conducted to explore possible colours for dishwashing liquid packaging using a semantic differential method. The results show that yellowish and bluish green colours evoke positive responses while saturated and dark green colours are perceived more negatively.     

Colour words and their uses

Popular usage of colour words as parts of speech obey certain rules according to whether they are population dependent and whether use demands a degree of colour vision. The word green refers to that colour most of us see, recognize and categorize as being of the colour called green. But, colours and colour words are to do with emotion as well as perception. What can we learn from the greatest writers, artists and musical composers; how do they, for example, regard green? From them we learn that we perceive colours with our ears as well as our eyes and, in an emotional sense, a colour word means or is associated with just what the writer intends. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 40, 111–113, 2015     

A study of colour emotion and colour preference. Part III: Colour preference modeling

In this study three colour preference models for single colours were developed. The first model was developed on the basis of the colour emotions, clean–dirty, tense–relaxed, and heavy–light. In this model colour preference was found affected most by the emotional feeling “clean.” The second model was developed on the basis of the three colour‐emotion factors identified in Part I, colour activity, colour weight, and colour heat. By combining this model with the colour‐science‐based formulae of these three factors, which have been developed in Part I, one can predict colour preference of a test colour from its colour‐appearance attributes. The third colour preference model was directly developed from colour‐appearance attributes. In this model colour preference is determined by the colour difference between a test colour and the reference colour (L*, a*, b*) = (50, ?8, 30). The above approaches to modeling single‐colour preference were also adopted in modeling colour preference for colour combinations. The results show that it was difficult to predict colour‐combination preference by colour emotions only. This study also clarifies the relationship between colour preference and colour harmony. The results show that although colour preference is strongly correlated with colour harmony, there are still colours of which the two scales disagree with each other. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 29, 381–389, 2004; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.20047     

A study of colour emotion and colour preference. Part I: Colour emotions for single colours

This article classifies colour emotions for single colours and develops colour‐science‐based colour emotion models. In a psychophysical experiment, 31 observers, including 14 British and 17 Chinese subjects assessed 20 colours on 10 colour‐emotion scales: warm–cool, heavy–light, modern–classical, clean–dirty, active–passive, hard–soft, tense–relaxed, fresh–stale, masculine–feminine, and like–dislike. Experimental results show no significant difference between male and female data, whereas different results were found between British and Chinese observers for the tense–relaxed and like–dislike scales. The factor analysis identified three colour‐emotion factors: colour activity, colour weight, and colour heat. The three factors agreed well with those found by Kobayashi and Sato et al. Four colour‐emotion models were developed, including warm–cool, heavy–light, active–passive, and hard–soft. These models were compared with those developed by Sato et al. and Xin and Cheng. The results show that for each colour emotion the models of the three studies agreed with each other, suggesting that the four colour emotions are culture‐independent across countries. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 29, 232–240, 2004; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.20010     

Colour memory for various sky,skin, and plant colours: Effect of the image context

In memory‐matching techniques, the remembered colour might differ from the original colour even if the viewing situation is the same. Our aim was to point out whether these so‐called memory shifts are significant in the everyday situations of viewing photos depicting sky, skin, or plant, or viewing standalone uniform colour patches of sky, skin, or plant colours. In many cases, significant memory shifts have been found. Considering only one type of object (sky or skin or plant), memory shifts turned out to be systematic in the sense that they were directed toward specific intervals of hue, chroma, and lightness. This tendency was more explicit for photos than for standalone colour patches. A method to quantify prototypical colours and their tolerance bounds was suggested. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Col Res Appl, 26, 278–289, 2001     

Colour semantics in residential interior architecture on different interior types

Colour meaning is a challenging decision in interior architecture during the design process; however, specific meanings within different interior types have not yet been investigated. This study explored colour meaning in the context of residential interior types (eg, bedroom) under controlled conditions using 42 Munsell colours varying in hues, value, and chroma levels, with 14 adjectives (eg, comfortable, pleasant). The results demonstrate that some colours convey the same meanings (eg, vulgar) regardless of type of room; however, others (eg, beautiful) tend to require more complicated and sophisticated colour applications in different residential interiors. The study findings proved that colour meaning in RITs can be affected by all colour attributes. All colours that are named orange and red are selected for both negative and positive meanings. Colours that are named purple are selected less and only for negative connotations. The findings present an overall colour meaning guide for these residential interior types, which will be beneficial for decision makers (interior architects, designers, users) and colour researchers.     

A study of colour emotion and colour preference. Part II: Colour emotions for two‐colour combinations

Eleven colour‐emotion scales, warm–cool, heavy–light, modern–classical, clean–dirty, active–passive, hard–soft, harmonious–disharmonious, tense–relaxed, fresh–stale, masculine–feminine, and like–dislike, were investigated on 190 colour pairs with British and Chinese observers. Experimental results show that gender difference existed in masculine–feminine, whereas no significant cultural difference was found between British and Chinese observers. Three colour‐emotion factors were identified by the method of factor analysis and were labeled “colour activity,” “colour weight,” and “colour heat.” These factors were found similar to those extracted from the single colour emotions developed in Part I. This indicates a coherent framework of colour emotion factors for single colours and two‐colour combinations. An additivity relationship was found between single‐colour and colour‐combination emotions. This relationship predicts colour emotions for a colour pair by averaging the colour emotions of individual colours that generate the pair. However, it cannot be applied to colour preference prediction. By combining the additivity relationship with a single‐colour emotion model, such as those developed in Part I, a colour‐appearance‐based model was established for colour‐combination emotions. With this model one can predict colour emotions for a colour pair if colour‐appearance attributes of the component colours in that pair are known. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 29, 292–298, 2004; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.20024     

Colour in urban places: A case study of Leicester City Football Club blue

By communicating an integrated story, the Leicester City Football Club blue inherits and persists the history and legacy of the football club, which further provides a stable and consistent meaning for the local sports culture. Colour as a medium and agency creates an intimacy and loyalty between the different ethnic and social groups across local, regional, and global contexts. The case study demonstrated that colour could give place identity through branding practice, identity mediation, and visual culture formation. The process reflected that economic and cultural force had a large impact on place‐making, and could be the decisive influence upon colour symbolism.     

Colour harmony revisited

A plethora of theories and studies exist that focus on the relationship between colour and esthetic response as well as the construction of colour harmony. However, consensus regarding colour harmony is lacking in the literature leaving designers and architects with colour harmony information that is contradictory and ambiguous. This article examines both early and more recent theories and definitions of colour harmony. The diverse theoretical paradigms and disparate assumptions embedded within these theories are discussed in some depth, and the validity and veracity of predictive colour harmony theories are discussed from a current theoretical perspective. An updated definition of colour harmony is providedalong with a conceptual model that represents an attempt to revise colour harmony in line with current theoretical paradigms. This conceptual model acknowledges that the interface between colour and esthetic response is less deterministic and predictable, and more idiographic than previous theories allow. In addition, the conceptual model suggests that colour harmony is contingent on factors that may influence the relationship between colour and esthetic response such as individual and cultural differences as well as perceptual, contextual, and temporal factors. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2010     

铁道罐车控制系统结构及主要元件的改造意义

本文论述铁道罐车控制系统结构及紧急切断阀(气相)与内置全启式弹簧安全阀并联组合设计结构的改造意义。     

Color meaning and context: Comparisons of semantic ratings of colors on samples and objects

This article reports the results of a study comparing semantic ratings of color samples (chips) with those of the same colors applied to a variety of familiar objects. Subjects rated a set of 13 color chips and 5 sets of objects, each appearing in the same 13 colors, against 5 bipolar, 7-step semantic differential scales. The scales consisted of beautiful-ugly, elegant-vulgar, loud-discreet, masculine-feminine, and warm-cold. Analyses performed on the data indicated that generally few significant differences existed between chip and object ratings for the same color; when such differences existed, the chip was always rated more beautiful, elegant, discreet, feminine, and warm than the object; and differences between chip and object ratings were confined primarily to a limited number of colors, objects, and semantic scales. The results of this study have implications for the use of color chips in color planning and for the generality of results of earlier color meaning research. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Col Res Appl, 22, 40–50, 1997.     

塑料通用浓色母料的研制

本文简要介绍了塑料通用浓色母料的组成、配方设计和制造技术．     

The role of gamut,intuition and engagement in colour management in a design context

Colour management is ubiquitous in the digital world. However, despite the many advances in colour management over the last couple of decades, it remains an imperfect process. In the art and design community there is often a level of dissatisfaction and deep cynicism about colour management that can lead to lac of engagement with the process. This research explores colour management in a design context though three issues: the gamut issue, the intuitive issue and the engagement issue; each relates to areas where colour management could better connect with tacit design knowhow. The work focusses on the selection of colour in a digital context since for many users this is the first touch point that they have with colour management. Psychophysical studies have been carried out in both laboratory and design‐studio settings. It is shown that users can better predict the results from subtractive colour mixing than from additive colour mixing. The performance of various types of colour picker are explored and consequences for the design of user interfaces are discussed.     

Colour scheme supporting technique based on hierarchical scene structure for exterior design of urban scenes in 3D

In this article, we propose a method for supporting colour schemes for the exterior colour design of an urban scene in 3D and report on a user study for validating the proposed scheme. The realized simulator allows users to develop harmonized colouring schemes for an urban colour design in 3D with the selection of a dominant colour and subcolours automatically. The technical aspects include designing a colour scheming table based on a colour guideline, extracting the façade colour from an image collected from a real scene, and conducting colour scheming on a 3D scene. The proposed method enhances efficiency with respect to reducing processing cost as providing automatic colour scheme in 3D. In addition, the 3D simulator makes the proposed method interactive, which in turn increases the flexibility for manipulation of 3D simulated scenes by changing viewpoints by rotating, zooming, and navigating the simulator. The experimental results and a user study are presented. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2010.     

Psychophysical models of consumer expectations and colour harmony in the context of juice packaging

The aim of this study was to develop psychophysical models that predict the influence of pack colours on consumers' psychological responses of fruit juices, such as visually perceived expectations of freshness, quality, liking, and colour harmony. Two existing colour harmony models derived from experiments involving only uniform colour plaques were tested using the juice packaging experimental data. Both models failed to predict the visual results obtained. Nevertheless, two parameters relevant to chromatic difference and hue difference were somewhat associated with the visual results. This suggested that, among all colour harmony principles for uniform colours, only the equal‐hue and the equal‐chroma principles can be adopted to describe colour harmony of packaging used for juice. This has the implication that the principles of colour harmony may vary according to the context in which the colours are used. A new colour harmony model was developed for juice packaging, and a predictive model of freshness was derived. Both models adopted CIELAB colour attributes of the package colour and the fruit image colour to predict viewers' responses. Expected liking and juice quality can be predicted using the colour harmony model while expected freshness can be predicted using the predictive model of freshness. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 40, 157–168, 2015     

Colour and tolerance of preferred skin colours on digital photographic images

Skin‐tone has been an active research subject in photographic colour reproduction. There is a consistent conclusion that preferred skin colours are different from actual skin colours. However, preferred skin colours found from different studies are somewhat different. To have a solid understanding of skin colour preference of digital photographic images, psychophysical experiments were conducted to determine a preferred skin colour region and to study inter‐observer variation and tolerance of preferred skin colours. In the first experiment, a preferred skin colour region is searched on the entire skin colour region. A set of nine predetermined colour centers uniformly sampled within the skin colour ellipse in CIELAB a*b* diagram is used to morph skin colours of test images. Preferred skin colour centers are found through the experiment. In a second experiment, a twice denser sampling of nine skin colour centers around the preferred skin colour center determined in the first experiment are generated to repeat the experiment using a different set of test images and judged by a different panel of observers. The results from both experiments are compared and final preferred skin colour centers are obtained. Variations and hue and chroma tolerances of the observer skin colour preference are also analysed. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2013     

调色系统中调色配方的设计方法及调色注意事项

从色浆体系的选择、基础漆种类的确定到颜色配方设计来说明在应用调色系统时调色配方的设计制作方法,同时总结出应用调色系统进行配色的相关注意事项。     

Colour displays for categorical images

We propose a method for identifying a set of colours for displaying 2D and 3D categorical images when the categories are unordered labels. The principle is to find maximally distinct sets of colours. We either generate colours sequentially, to maximize the dissimilarity or distance between a new colour and the set of colours already chosen, or use a simulated annealing algorithm to find a set of colours of specified size. In both cases, we use a Euclidean metric on the perceptual colour space, CIELAB, to specify distances. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 32, 304–309, 2007     

Colour size effect modelling

The visual phenomenon known as the colour size effect was investigated and two models were developed to predict the change in colour appearance of samples with six different sizes. The models are capable of transforming the colour appearance of a stimulus having a viewing field of 2° to that associated with a range of viewing fields. They are named the size effect correction and the size effect transform and are based on human perceptual attributes and human cone responses, respectively. The performance of both models was tested using the experimental data, and the results showed that the size effect transform performed better than the size effect correction. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 2012     

Colour correctability of a colour-matching recipe

The colour of a test dyeing/batch is frequently too far from the target colour to be accepted and some correction to the component concentrations in the recipe is needed. Therefore, it would be useful for a colourist, already at the time of match prediction, to have some a priori information about the possibility of correcting the colour of a particular recipe. In this article, the definitions of directional and overall colour correctability are introduced and the way to calculate their numerical estimates is developed. These values enable the comparison of the colour correctability of various different recipes for the same target colour in advance. In addition, the link between the colour sensitivity and the colour correctability of a recipe is discussed. A numerical example is provided for illustration. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Col Res Appl, 22, 88–95, 1997