Ethnic differences in realising desires to leave urban neighbourhoods

Selective mobility into and out of urban neighbourhoods is one of the main driving forces of segregation. Earlier research has found group differences in who wants to leave or who leaves certain types of neighbourhoods. A factor that has received little attention so far is that some residents will have a desire to leave their neighbourhood, but are unable to do so. If there are differences between population groups in the realisation of desires to leave the neighbourhood, this might lead to involuntary segregation. This paper uses a unique combination of register data and survey data. We combine data from a large housing survey in the Netherlands (WoON) with longitudinal register data from the Netherlands (SSD) which contains individual-level information on residential mobility histories. This allows us to study whether households with a desire to leave their neighbourhood do realise this desire and which households are successful in leaving which neighbourhoods. A more thorough insight in who wants to leave which neighbourhoods but is unable to do so will contribute to a better understanding of selective mobility and segregation. We find that ethnic minorities and low-income households are less likely to realise a desire to leave their neighbourhood. We expected that ethnic minorities would be especially unsuccessful in realising desires to leave minority concentration neighbourhoods; however, for none of the ethnic groups we found an effect of neighbourhood ethnic composition on the realisation of desires to leave.     

Natives’ opinions on ethnic residential segregation and neighbourhood diversity in Helsinki,Oslo and Stockholm

Nordic countries rank high on measures indicating tolerant views on immigrants. Yet, ethnic residential segregation is stated as being a major social problem in these countries. Neighbourhood flight and avoidance behaviour among the native born could be a sign of less tolerant views on minorities, but could of course be restricted to native-born residents in areas of high-ethnic concentration. So far, no research in these countries has explicitly focused on the majority population’s view on segregation, and we know little about how native-born residents in different neighbourhood contexts view ethnic segregation or how own residential experience shapes decisions on staying or leaving; this paper aims to help fill this research lacuna. In a survey targeting 9000 native-born residents in three Nordic capital cities—stratified into neighbourhood movers and stayers and into neighbourhoods having different proportions of non-Nordic-born residents—we answer three questions: do native-born respondents prefer a neighbourhood ethnic mix? Do they see ethnic segregation as a problem? Do they prefer lower, current or higher shares of ethnic minorities in their own neighbourhoods?     

The Wish to Leave Ethnically Concentrated Neighbourhoods: The Role of Perceived Social Cohesion and Interethnic Attitudes

This paper aims to investigate the motives behind people's wishes to move out of ethnically concentrated neighbourhoods. We focus on the impact of perceived social cohesion and negative interethnic attitudes and hypothesise on moving wishes of ethnic majority and minority residents in the Netherlands (i.e. Turks and Moroccans). Data were derived from the first wave of the 2009 Netherlands Longitudinal Lifecourse Study, collected in 35 municipalities covering 800 neighbourhoods. Taking into account household, housing and other neighbourhood attributes, multilevel logistic regression models show that ethnic majority residents are more likely to have a wish to move when they live in neighbourhoods with a large percentage of ethnic minorities. This can be explained by a lack of perceived social cohesion, but not by their negative attitudes towards ethnic minorities. Controlling for housing and neighbourhood conditions, the percentage of ethnic minorities neither increases nor decreases minority residents' moving wishes.     

Changes in the ethnic composition of neighbourhoods: Analysis of household's response and asymmetric preference structures

Theoretical models of ethnic residential segregation indicate asymmetries in preferences as the key driver of ethnic segregation dynamics. This study uses a pivoted choice experiment to empirically analyse the asymmetric preference structures for ethnic composition of neighbourhoods. We assume that the utilities of various alternative residential locations are dependent on the experienced levels of co‐ethnics or ethnic minorities in the current neighbourhood of residence, where the increases in current ethnic concentrations could be evaluated differently than decreases. Results from a discrete choice model estimated on data from Swiss city of Lugano confirm the existence of asymmetries, showing that individuals tend to be averse to decreases in the share of their co‐nationals, while being indifferent to any increases.     

Individual differences in the neighbourhood level determinants of residential satisfaction

Abstract

Residential satisfaction is a key variable in understanding residential mobility. Many researchers have studied the individual level and neighbourhood level determinants of satisfaction, however, very few have studied which neighbourhood characteristics affect satisfaction for whom. In this paper, ordered logit models are estimated, explaining satisfaction from neighbourhood characteristics, personal characteristics and interactions. These interactions test whether neighbourhood characteristics have similar effects on satisfaction for all individuals, or whether individual characteristics affect the size and direction of these effects. Satisfaction is found to be less affected by the share of ethnic minorities for ethnic minorities than for natives, because minorities are more satisfied in neighbourhoods with higher shares of their own ethnic group. Neighbourhood characteristics are found to have a stronger effect on satisfaction for owner-occupiers and parents with children than for others, however the impact of neighbourhood ethnic composition does not vary with tenure or household type.     

Social housing allocation,choice and neighbourhood ethnic mix in England

Driven by a concern about the negative side effects of ethnic concentration neighbourhoods, many European governments aim to create more ethnically and socio-economically mixed neighbourhoods. At the same time, housing policy aims to give tenants more choice in how and where they live. The objectives of these two policies might conflict as offering people choice has the potential to increase self-segregation, especially across ethnic groups. This paper studies the effect of choice-based letting on (self) segregation in housing association stock in England. We analyse whether households who let their property under choice-based letting end up in neighbourhoods with different levels of ethnic concentrations than households who are matched to a dwelling using the traditional allocation system. We focus on how the effect of choice-based letting differs for ethnic minority households and non-ethnic minority households. Using unique data on all lettings made in the housing association sector in England in 2006/2007 and an ordered logit regression model we show that ethnic minority households are more likely to let a property in an ethnic concentration neighbourhood than non-ethnic minority households. Ethnic minorities letting their property under choice-based letting are the most likely to accept a dwelling in an ethnic concentration neighbourhood.     

Whites' neighbourhood racial preferences and neighbourhood racial composition in the United States: evidence from the multi‐city study of urban inequality

Within the housing segregation literature major disagreements have developed over two fundamental issues: (1) the role that whites' aversion to racially mixed neighbourhoods plays in causing modern segregation in the US; and (2) the factors that underlie this aversion, including the effects of inter‐racial contact on whites' neighbourhood racial preferences and whether these preferences reflect neighbourhood stereotyping as opposed to pure racial prejudice. Extant evidence on these issues is either old or indirect. This paper provides direct evidence on these issues using new data from the Multi‐City Study of Urban Inequality. The results suggest that (1) whites' neighbourhood racial preferences play an important role in explaining the racial composition of their neighbourhoods; (2) inter‐racial contact in neighbourhoods and workplaces leads to a greater willingness among whites to live with blacks; and (3) although younger and more educated whites express a stronger taste for integration than other whites, the magnitude of these differences leads to only a small increase in the black percentage of the neighbourhood. In addition, the results provide no evidence in support of the hypothesis that whites stereotype black neighbourhoods rather than blacks per se.     

Straight-line Assimilation in Leaving Home? A Comparison of Turks,Somalis and Danes

The purpose of this paper is to test the evidence for spatial assimilation and straight-line assimilation in the transition of leaving home in Denmark. Based on data from the extensive Danish registers, the paper analyses the home-leaving patterns of Danes, Turkish immigrants, Turkish descendants and Somali immigrants. Two main findings emerged. First, while spatial segregation patterns of home-leavers were clear, inter-generational mobility did take place, supporting the notion of straight-line assimilation. Second, inter-generational effects were identified. While there was no indication that parental socio-economic situation affected the spatial segregation of home-leavers, substantial effects were found for the share of ethnic minorities in the parental neighbourhood: the higher the share of ethnic minorities, the higher the hazard for moving to an ethnic neighbourhood and the lower the hazard for moving to a non-ethnic neighbourhood. Similarity in the patterns of natives and the ethnic minority groups indicates that the processes taking place might be about more than assimilation between generations.     

Ethnic Residential Clusters in Nima,Ghana

The global debate on ethnic residential segregation has focused more on the developed world, and little is known about similar patterns and processes in African cities. This is in spite of the fact that many African cities are now ranked among the world’s most rapidly growing and least regulated urban areas. Indeed, the dynamics of ethnic residential segregation have scarcely been studied in African cities. The little literature available has looked at ethnic segregation between the neighbourhoods of major cities. This paper goes beyond current literature by examining the pattern and processes of ethnic clustering within a multi-ethnic community. Our goal in this paper is to answer the question as to whether within a multi-ethnic urban neighbourhood the major ethnic groups are residentially clustered, isolated or dispersed. The focus is on Nima, a major slum community of Accra, Ghana. The findings of the study show that even though Nima is a multi-ethnic community, some level of ethnic clustering can be discerned. These patterns are linked to the history of settlement formation, religious affiliation and ethnic or place of origin of earlier house owners.     

The association between neighbourhoods and educational achievement,a systematic review and meta-analysis

Many studies have examined the effects of neighbourhoods on educational outcomes. The results of these studies are often conflicting, even if the same independent variables (such as poverty, educational climate, social disorganisation, or ethnic composition) are used. A systematic meta-analysis may help to resolve this lack of external validity. We identified 5516 articles from which we selected 88 that met all of the inclusion criteria. Using meta-regression, we found that the relation between neighbourhoods and individual educational outcomes is a function of neighbourhood poverty, the neighbourhood’s educational climate, the proportion of ethnic/migrant groups, and social disorganisation in the neighbourhood. The variance in the findings from different studies can partly be explained by the sampling design and the type of model used in each study. More important is the use of control variables (school, family SES, and parenting variables) in explaining the variation in the strength of neighbourhood effects.     

Selective moving behaviour in ethnic neighbourhoods: white flight,white avoidance,ethnic attraction or ethnic retention?

Spatial concentrations of ethnic minorities might in principle be created and maintained by four different kinds of moving behaviour stemming from special housing preferences and options among either ethnic minorities or the native population. Inclination among natives to move away from neighbourhoods dominated by ethnic minorities has been called ‘White Flight’ in the literature, and disposition to avoid them ‘White Avoidance’. Preferences among ethnic minorities for living together with kinsmen or countrymen might create an inclination to move into multi-ethnic neighbourhoods, in this paper called ‘Ethnic Attraction’, or to remain there, called ‘Ethnic Retention’. This paper estimates the importance and size of these four kinds of behaviour based on an extensive database from Denmark using new statistical methods. It is concluded that white avoidance is the strongest reason for spatial concentrations of Non-Western ethnic minorities followed by ethnic attraction. White flight has a smaller impact and ethnic retention is without importance.     

Neighbourhood inequality spillover effects of gentrification

Previous research has considered how gentrification may alter the racial composition, income composition and income segregation within a neighbourhood. An increase in income segregation at the neighbourhood level may be evidenced by a reduction in income inequality, which may harm low-income households. We examine how the influence of gentrification, with respect to changes in income inequality at the neighbourhood level over time, may spill over into surrounding neighbourhoods as lower-income households' location choices change. We use data from the 30 largest Core Based Statistical Areas in the US from 2000–2010 and find that areas bordering newly gentrified neighbourhoods experience an increase in income inequality (potentially benefiting low-income households). This effect appears to be concentrated in relatively smaller CBSAs, where lower-income households may have less mobility, and in surrounding neighbourhoods that are themselves relatively lower-income.     

Ethnic Neighbourhoods in Auckland,New Zealand

Using the 2006 New Zealand Census data, we examine the spatial clustering of the four largest ethnic minority groups—Chinese, Indian, Māori and Samoan—in Auckland. To guide our analysis, we employ three theoretical models—the immigrant enclave, ethnic community and place stratification models—that have helped explain the residential patterns of ethnic minority groups in immigrant destination countries. The results of spatial autocorrelation analysis show that all four ethnic minority groups form ethnic neighbourhoods. Indian neighbourhoods are more reflective of the immigrant enclave model as these neighbourhoods are socio-economically impoverished and have a higher percentage of foreign born. On the other hand, Chinese neighbourhoods are better explained by the ethnic community model, which describes an ethnic neighbourhood based more on preference than economic necessity. While the overall findings conform to patterns found in other countries, the severely socially deprived characteristics of Samoan and Māori neighbourhoods are reflective of the place stratification model.     

Homophily horizons and ethnic mover flows among homeowners in Scotland

Abstract

This article analyses mover flows in Glasgow and the role of ethnic homophily, the tendency for movers to be drawn to areas with similar ethnicities to their own. We look at how homophily affects the spatial relocation patterns of homeowners in Glasgow from Scottish, Indian, Pakistani and Chinese descent, and focus on the extent to which homophily extends beyond the immediate locality to surrounding neighbourhoods. Our interest is in estimating the “homophily horizon” – how far the gaze of homophily reaches in mover location decisions. Using a simple Schelling-type theoretical model, we argue that homophily horizons are potentially important in shaping the long-term social structure of cities as they may profoundly affect how potent the overall sorting tendencies of the housing market are in driving segregation. In principle, the more distant the homophily horizon, the more quickly the housing market will tend towards segregation, other things being equal. We adopt Folch and Rey’s use of the local centralization index to capture the influence of surrounding neighbourhoods in shaping mover flows and neighbourhood dynamics. Our estimation combines ethnic mover flows derived from surname analysis of house buyers from the house transactions recorded in Registers of Scotland data. Our results show that the presence of the own ethnic group in the local surroundings is important for explaining mover flows, and that homophily is a local phenomenon.     

Perception of insecurity in French poor neighbourhoods: racial proxy or pure discrimination hypotheses?

Many poor neighbourhoods, home to both socially disadvantaged populations and to foreigners, are characterised by a strong perception of insecurity. The purpose of this article is determine the origin of this perception. To do so, two possible causes are dissociated: racial prejudice and racial proxy (the ethnic minorities are perceived in terms of the negative social characteristics that are often associated with them). More specifically, it is shown that the ‘ethnic’ variable captures the effects of an overconcentration of poverty, approximated here by the concentration of unemployment, but that these two variables act separately. This result should be taken into account in the policies implemented by public authorities and local actors. In this study, an original methodology is applied based simultaneously on individual geocoded data, the proportion of foreigners, the unemployment rate at the neighbourhood level and an indirect indicator of perceived insecurity.     

Migrants’ long-term residential trajectories in Sweden: persistent neighbourhood deprivation or spatial assimilation?

Abstract

Despite time being a key element in the theories on international migrants’ socio-spatial mobility, it has not been sufficiently addressed in empirical research. Most studies focus on discrete transitions between different types of neighbourhoods, potentially missing theoretically important temporal aspects. This article uses sequence analysis to study the residential trajectories of international migrants in Sweden emphasising the timing, order, and duration of residence in neighbourhoods with different poverty levels. It follows individuals of the 2003 arrival cohort during their first 9 years in the country. Results show that 81% of migrants consistently reside in the same type of neighbourhood; 60% consistently live in a deprived area and mere 12% follow a trajectories starting at deprived and ending at middle-income or affluent neighbourhoods. Thus, spatial assimilation is neither the only nor the most frequent trajectory followed by migrants in Sweden. Lastly, there are persistent differences in neighbourhood attainment between immigrant groups, suggesting either place stratification or ethnic preference.     

Residential segregation of ethnic groups in West German cities

Research focused on immigrants in German cities has shown that ethnic minorities have a clear tendency towards segregation and spatial concentration in specific urban areas. Unlike the immigrant enclaves in North American cities these neighbourhoods cannot be termed ‘ghettos’. Yet today one of the most controversial political issues in West German cities is the likelihood of ethnic ghetto formation. There is general agreement amongst planners and politicians that such a development should be prevented as it will hinder future integration. This article will: consider the conditions of labour immigrants and their families in West German cities; review the development of these conditions, especially in the last 15 years; and explain, as far as possible, the geographical concentration and segregation of immigrants, examining policies for integration.     

Examining the impacts of ethnicity on space-time behavior: Evidence from the City of Xining,China

Recent studies on racial or ethnic differences have moved beyond the residential neighborhood to understand segregation in terms of people's space-time behavior. In China, where the spatial distribution of ethnic minorities is quite different from Western countries, research on ethnic issues based on this new perspective to date has received far less attention than other social issues such as poverty. This study seeks to examine the effects of ethnicity on people's space-time behavior in the Chinese context. Focusing on the Hui minorities and the Han majorities in Xining, a multi-ethnic city in the western region of China, we examined the space-time patterns of daily activities of these two ethnic groups. We use geovisualization tools and statistical measures to explore the extent to which ethnicity accounts for the differences in space-time behavior between the two ethnic groups. The paper concludes that ethnic characteristics of the Hui minorities, such as gender division of domestic labor and the participation in spatially and temporally fixed daily religious activities, have led to an independent and significant influence of ethnicity on space-time behavior when compared with the Han majorities in Xining.     

Same Neighbourhood … Different Views? A Confrontation of Internal and External Neighbourhood Reputations

Residents and non-residents are likely to think differently about a neighbourhood's reputation. Relatively little is known about the similarities and differences between these internal and external types of neighbourhood reputation or the relationship between reputations and ‘real’ or ‘objective’ neighbourhood characteristics. This paper addresses two points: first, the extent to which neighbourhood reputations differ between and within groups; second, the extent to which these neighbourhood reputations are associated with measured neighbourhood characteristics. Data from a specially designed survey carried out in 24 neighbourhoods in Utrecht, the fourth largest city in the Netherlands, are used. Analysis of the data showed that neighbourhood reputations are rated higher by residents and estate agents than by other city residents. Within the group of other city residents, differences were found in how neighbourhood reputations are rated by socio-economic status, ethnicity and educational background. Further, it was found that neighbourhood reputations are correlated with measured social characteristics of the neighbourhood, while physical and functional neighbourhood characteristics are of less importance.