Logical problem solving by educable retarded adolescents and normal children.

Gave a simplified version of the logical problem-solving task developed by E. D. Neimark to 20 institutionalized and 18 noninstitutionalized retardates and to 20 children from kindergarten through 3rd grade. The performance of the retardates fell below that of the normals of equal mental age. Although the retardates and the younger children solved the problem when the critical information was supplied to them, most of these Ss could not generate the necessary information by themselves, and continued to make redundant responses. For the normals, performance improved up to 81/2-9 yrs of age, at which point 90% reached criterion. Training improved the performance of 7 yr olds but had little or no effect on the performance of 6 yr olds and institutionalized retarded adolescents. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental aspects of the feeling of knowing.

Prior reports that feeling-of-knowing (FOK) accuracy increases through childhood and remains constant during adulthood are inconclusive because (a) they used absolute FOK judgments that can be contaminated by differences in the threshold for claiming to know, (b) they used measures of FOK accuracy that are not invariant across different degrees of recognition-test difficulty, and (c) they did not rule out the possibility that age-related differences in FOK accuracy may be caused by changes in the reliability of FOK judgments. We avoided these methodological problems in two studies by using relative FOK judgments, by computing Goodman-Kruskal gamma coefficients to assess FOK accuracy, and by assessing the test–retest reliability of the subjects' FOK judgments. We found that 6-year-olds had less reliable FOK judgments but greater FOK accuracy than 10-year-olds or 18-year-olds. Moreover, 18- and 70-year-olds had equally reliable FOK judgments and equivalent FOK accuracy. Possible reasons for the greater FOK accuracy of youngsters included their lower rate of commission errors and more frequent recognition of correct answers for their commissions. Implications are drawn for the study of metacognitive development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dissociating knowing and the feeling of knowing: Further evidence for the accessibility model.

Predictions derived from the accessibility model of the feeling of knowing (FOK; A. Koriat, 1993) were tested regarding the basis of FOK and the reason for its accuracy. According to the model, FOK monitors the accessibility of partial information about unrecallable targets, and its validity depends on the accuracy of that information. General knowledge questions were classified in terms of their tendency to precipitate answers in recall (accessibility, or ACC), and the proportion of such answers that were correct (output-bound accuracy, or OBA). FOK increased with increasing ACC independent of actual recognition memory, and the FOK recognition correlation varied dramatically with OBA: It was positive for high-OBA questions, but nil or negative for low-OBA questions. The results suggest that people have no privileged access to the contents of their memory over and above what they can retrieve from it. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of three predictors of an individual's memory performance: The individual's feeling of knowing versus the normative feeling of knowing versus base-rate item difficulty.

Compared the memory performance predictions of 168 undergraduates with normative item-difficulty predictions and with normative feeling-of-knowing (FOK) predictions. Ss attempted to recall the answers to general-information questions, made FOK judgments on nonrecalled items, and were subsequently administered a criterion test (relearning, perceptual identification, or 1 of 2 versions of recognition). Results indicate that, for predicting an S's criterion performance, the S's own FOK predictions were intermediate between 2 kinds of normative predictions: Ss' FOK predictions were more accurate than predictions derived from normative FOK ratings but were less accurate than predictions derived from base-rate item difficulty (normative probabilities of correct recall). Subsidiary analyses showed that factors other than unreliability were responsible for the partial inaccuracy of Ss' FOK. Possible ways to improve the accuracy of an individual's FOK predictions are discussed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessment of perceived competence, motivational orientation, and anxiety in segregated and mainstreamed educable mentally retarded children.

Examined whether instruments designed to tap the self-system in normal IQ children could be used with retarded pupils. The Perceived Competence Scale for Children and scales assessing intrinsic vs extrinsic orientation in the classroom and school concerns were administered to 90 retarded children mainstreamed for socialization or academic purposes and to 36 retarded children who were taught in self-contained classrooms. All Ss were aged 9–12 yrs. For each measure, the 4- or 5-factor structure found for normal-IQ children was not obtained. However 2-factor solutions were revealed, leading to the identification of 6 constructs: General Competence, Popularity, Motivation for Hard Work, Autonomous Judgment, Concern About Evaluation, and Concern About Teacher Support. The failure to find differences between mainstreamed and self-contained Ss was related to the social comparison groups used. Mainstreamed Ss compared themselves with other mainstreamed retarded pupils, whereas self-contained Ss used other self-contained pupils as their comparison group. Findings highlight the need to revise instruments for use with the retarded and to obtain social comparison information. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Confidence level and feeling of knowing in question answering: The weight of inferential processes.

What are the sources of metamemory judgments in question answering? Exp 1 showed that the level of confidence in the correctness of a recalled answer (CL) is a reliable measure (test–retest G?=?.87) and a valid predictor of recognition (G?=?.55/.58). In contrast, the feeling of knowing the correct answer (FOK), although reliable (G?=?.82), is a poor predictor of recognition (G?=?.11). In Exp 2 it was discovered that FOK levels are more highly correlated with beliefs about what should be known than are CL judgments. Controlling for the relationship between FOK and those beliefs eliminates any correlation between FOK and recognition (G drops from .27 to .08), which is not the case with CL (G remains as high as .52). These data suggest that CL is based on the retrieval of at least some elements of the right answer, whereas FOK may be derived from recency or familiarity effects elicited by the question itself. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of labeling as educable mentally retarded on teachers' expectancies for change in a student's performance.

Studied the effects of alleged bias on teachers' perceptions of a child labeled mentally retarded (EMR). An equal number of 40 regular class elementary and 40 EMR teachers from a large urban inner city school district were randomly assigned to groups of 20 viewing a videotape in which a Black child was said to be either in a 6th-grade or an EMR classroom. At 4 intervals, Ss predicted the future achievement level of the child on concept formation tasks, shown in the tape to be administered by a teacher. Results of a repeated measures analysis of variance indicated that the EMR label did not elicit lower mean expectancy scores than the regular class label, while the trend of increasing expectancies over trials suggests that a teacher's personal evaluation of a student's performance may contribute more than an educational-diagnostic label such as EMR to the behavioral expression of expectancies. There was no difference between EMR and regular class teachers nor interaction of trials with label or teacher group. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The assessment of effectance motivation in normal and retarded children.

Constructed several measures of effectance motivation and assessed their validity by administering them to groups of Ss whose motivation was assumed to differ. 37 normal, 32 noninstitutionalized retarded, and 34 institutionalized retarded children matched on MA were employed. For the 4 components of effectance motivation investigated-variation seeking, curiosity, mastery for the sake of competence, and preference for challenging tasks-normals demonstrated more effectance motivation than did either retarded group. The measures also proved sensitive to differences between the noninstitutionalized and institutionalized retarded. Verbal inquiry data resulted in a pattern of findings parallel to that obtained with the task measures, providing further support for the validity of the measures. Measurement problems and the need for constructing adequate developmental indices of effectance motivation are emphasized. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How do we know that we know? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing

Even when Ss fail to recall a solicited target, they can provide feeling-of-knowing (FOK) judgments about its availability in memory. Most previous studies addressed the question of FOK accuracy, only a few examined how FOK itself is determined, and none asked how the processes assumed to underlie FOK also account for its accuracy. The present work examined all 3 questions within a unified model, with the aim of demystifying the FOK phenomenon. The model postulates that the computation of FOK is parasitic on the processes involved in attempting to retrieve the target, relying on the accessibility of pertinent information. It specifies the links between memory strength, accessibility of correct and incorrect information about the target, FOK judgments, and recognition memory. Evidence from 3 experiments is presented. The results challenge the view that FOK is based on a direct, privileged access to an internal monitor.     

Auditory localization skills in mentally retarded children.

Measured the gross auditory and visual localization skills of 24 6–18 yr old mentally retarded Ss. Half of the Ss were selected randomly from a group of residents who had demonstrated visual discrimination skills and auditory speech discrimination skills. The other Ss were selected randomly from a group of residents who demonstrated visual discrimination skills but not auditory speech discrimination. Findings indicate that all Ss who previously demonstrated auditory speech discrimination passed the auditory localization task, and all Ss who previously failed to demonstrate auditory speech discrimination failed the auditory localization task. It is suggested that auditory localization skills may be used as an approximation to the development of auditory speech discrimination skills. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What determines initial feeling of knowing? Familiarity with question terms, not with the answer.

How do people know whether they have an answer to a question before they actually find it in their memory? Two experiments explored this question. Ss were trained on relatively novel 2-digit?×?2-digit arithmetic problems (e.g., 23?×?27). Before answering each problem, Ss made a quick feeling of knowing judgment as to whether they could directly retrieve the answer from memory or had to compute it. Knowing the answer initially appeared to be linearly related to having a feeling of knowing the answer; however, when the frequency of exposure to complete problems and the frequency of exposure to parts of the problems were separately varied, feeling of knowing was better predicted by the frequency of presentation of the problem parts, not by knowledge of the answer. This suggests that the processes involved in knowing the answer are different from those involved in having a feeling of knowing. Specifically, an early feeling of knowing is not just based on an early read of the answer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Discrimination and switching learning in normal, familial retarded, and organic retarded children.

In an effort to explicate the contradictory findings of earlier studies, normals, familial retardates, and organic retardates at 2 MA levels were trained on either a 3-choice or a 2-choice discrimination task. Following solution of the original task Ss were switched to either a new 3-choice discrimination, a 2-choice transposition, or a 2-choice reversal problem. There were no significant types of S main effects on either the 1st or 2nd problems. It was concluded that the findings offered no support for the view that the cognitive functioning of retardates is inherently different from normals of the same MA. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vibration as positive reinforcement for retarded children.

Contends that previous studies investigating vibration as a positive reinforcer did not provide: adequate controls for touch and noise; a sufficient number of Ss; or comparisons of vibration with other reinforcers. In the present study, 4 groups of 40 trainable, institutionalized, retarded 8-12 yr. olds were exposed to an operant button-pressing paradigm. Results indicate that vibration compared favorably with a food reinforcer and that vibration was significantly more effective as a reward than the touch or the noise emitted by the vibrator. It is suggested that vibration may be used as an effective reinforcer to train retarded children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Improving the social status of mainstreamed retarded children.

37 mainstreamed educable mentally retarded (EMR) children in Grades 3, 4, and 5 were randomly assigned to a control group or to an experimental treatment given during regular class activities for the purpose of improving their social status among nonretarded classmates. On the average, Ss were 8–20 mo older than their normal classmates. Each experimental S worked in a small cooperative group with 4–6 nonretarded classmates on highly structured, manipulative tasks using multimedia materials. The treatment was provided in 2 cycles which lasted a total of 8 wks. Sociometric tests were given before and after treatment to pupils in classes with experimental and control EMR Ss. By 2–4 wks following completion of treatment, nonretarded Ss' social acceptance of their experimental peers improved significantly more than that of control Ss. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Outer-directedness in the problem solving of normal and retarded children.

2 studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that the high incidence of failure experienced by retardates results in their employing an outer-directed style of problem solving. In Study I 20 retarded and 20 normal children matched on MA experienced either a success or a failure condition on 3 games and were then tested on 2 imitation tasks. Retardates were found to be more imitative than normals. All the children were found to be more imitative following the failure than the success condition. In Study II 20 normal and 20 retarded children matched on MA and divided into experimental and control groups performed on 2 object-assembly and 1 block-board task. In the experimental condition E engaged in certain behaviors that if attended to would interfere with S's performance on the 1st object-assembly task and facilitate performance on the 2nd object-assembly task, and which would provide S with a response that could be imitated on the block-board game. As predicted, the retarded experimental group did poorer than the normal experimental group on the 1st object-assembly task, but was superior to the normals on the 2nd object assembly task. They also showed a tendency to be more imitative on the block-board game, and they made more glances toward E. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mental ability and sociometric status among retarded children.

"A review of representative studies of the relation between ability and sociometric status among normal children, institutional retarded children, and noninstitutional retarded children, indicated high agreement with the generalization that individual ability is positively and significantly associated with choice status… . Studies that attend exclusively to the relation between intelligence and status should be avoided, while efforts to predict status within groups undergoing formaton or change should be increased." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conversations about feeling states between mothers and their young children.

The development of children's verbal communication about feeling states was studied by analyzing naturally occurring conversations at home. The data were recorded during two longitudinal studies. In Study 1, 43 second-born children were observed with mother and older sibling at 18 and 24 months. In Study 2, 16 firstborn children were observed with mother and younger sibling at 25 and 32 months. Both studies showed that by 2 years of age, the majority of children referred to a range of feeling states in self and other, and they discussed the cause of feeling states in a variety of contexts (including pretend games). References to feeling states made by mother and older sibling when the target child was 18 months were positively correlated with the target child's speech about feeling states at 24 months. Both mothers and older siblings mentioned feeling states more frequently to girls than to boys. By 24 months, the girls themselves referred to feeling states significantly more often than boys. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)