A self-presentation approach to the fundamental attribution error: The norm of internality.

Three studies assessed the validity of the assumption of a general norm placing greater value on internal explanations for behavior than on external explanations (determined by Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale). Study 1 with 117 undergraduates demonstrated that Ss who expressed internal causal attributions received more social approval than those who expressed external ones. Study 2, in which 18 Ss rated themselves as giving more internal explanations for events than average others do, also demonstrated the greater positive value associated with internal attributions. In Study 3, 25 Ss given the injunction to create a positive impression described themselves as having a stronger bias toward internal attributions than did 24 Ss given the injunction to create a negative impression. The implications of the norm for internality are discussed and outlined for the actor–observer effect and for social psychological theories. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributions of learning disabled children.

Two studies compared learning disabled (LD) and normally achieving (NA) children's attribution patterns of success and failure in achievement and in social situations. In Study 1, 37 LD and 67 NA 7th and 8th graders were interviewed about attributions for hypothetical success–failure situations. 75 LD and 30 NA Ss (aged 9–17 yrs) from private schools were interviewed about attributions for real-life ratings of success in Study 2. NA Ss in both studies followed the expected pattern of attributing success more internally and failure (or less success) more externally. LD Ss attributed success to internal factors as well, but in both studies they also externalized success more than did the NA Ss. In their attributions for failure (or less success), the LD Ss in both studies did not follow the expected pattern. It is concluded that attributional differences between the LD Ss may reflect differences in self-esteem, expectations, and uncertainty. Careful reconsideration of the potentially negative consequences of attributional retraining of children with learning problems is recommended. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning disabilities, locus of control, and mother attitudes.

Academic locus of control and mothers' school-related reactions and expectations were studied in 81 learning disabled (LD) and 81 normally achieving (control) children in Grades 3–6. The Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire, the Intellectual subscale of the Parent Reaction Questionnaire, and the Parents Version of the Projected Academic Performance Scale were used. LD Ss indicated more external perceptions of control with respect to successful academic experiences. For failure outcomes, no difference between LD and control Ss was found; however, a trend toward increased internality was noted over grade levels for both groups. Mothers of LD Ss reported more negative and fewer positive reactions to their children. They also held lower academic performance expectations for their children than control mothers. Results are discussed in terms of the need to develop more internal control perceptions in LD children and the role of parental attitudes and expectations in school learning. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self–nonself-segregation and reality monitoring.

Three experiments with 144 female undergraduates tested the hypothesis that field-independent (FI) Ss would be better reality monitors and would be better able to separate the self from the nonself than field-dependent (FD) Ss. It is noted that, according to M. K. Johnson and C. L. Raye (see record 1981-06694-001), reality monitoring is the process of determining whether a memory originated in thought processes (internal) or in perception (external). Ss' field dependence–independence was determined with the Group Embedded Figures Test. In Exp I, FD and FI Ss were asked to discriminate between internal and external sources of memories. FI Ss were more accurate at identifying the origin of their memories and made fewer reality monitoring confusions than FD Ss. When Ss were asked to discriminate between 2 external sources of memories in Exp II or between 2 internal sources of memories in Exp III, FI Ss did not show the source discrimination advantage. Recognition memory also varied across experiments, with FI Ss showing an advantage in some (Exps I and II) but not all (Exp III) cases. Findings are discussed in terms of an overreliance by FD Ss on the sensory, semantic, and contextual detail characteristic of externally derived memories and little awareness by these Ss of their own cognitive operations. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attribution, affect, and college exam performance.

Results of a questionnaire study with 207 college students show that Ss attributed their own performance and the performance of the average student to ability, test difficulty, preparation, and luck. Consistent with the self-serving bias hypothesis, successful Ss perceived internal factors as more important causes and unsuccessful Ss perceived external factors as more important causes of their own performance than the performance of the average student. Furthermore, successful Ss saw internal and stable factors as more important causes of others' outcomes (as well as their own) than did unsuccessful Ss. Ss' anxiety about their performance and their ratings of the course and instructor were systematically, albeit weakly, linked with specific causal attributions. The implications of these causal inferences and affective responses in the educational context are discussed. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal attributions of learning disabled children: Individual differences and their implications for persistence.

It has been shown that learning disabled (LD) children are likely to develop a maladaptive pattern of causal attributions. However, it is unclear whether LD children are more likely to differ from their peers in terms of a greater tendency to attribute their difficulties to insufficient ability or in terms of a greater tendency to blame external factors. The authors investigated this issue in 24 LD boys and 14 LD girls in Grades 3–5 and in 38 age-, sex-, race-, and IQ-matched normal controls. Ss were asked to complete scales assessing attributions for academic difficulties; 2 wks later, Ss were presented with a reading task for which persistence was measured. It was found that LD girls were significantly more likely than nondisabled girls to attribute their difficulties to insufficient ability, but girls did not differ in their tendency to attribute their difficulties to external factors. In contrast, LD boys were significantly more likely than nondisabled boys to attribute their difficulties to external factors, but they did not differ from nondisabled boys in their tendency to attribute their difficulties to insufficient ability. Although the tendency to blame one's ability was negatively related to reading task persistence, the tendency to attribute one's difficulties to external factors did not show this negative relation. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reaction-time behaviour as a function of internal-external control of reinforcement and control of test administration.

Tested 168 undergraduates in 2 self- vs. E-controlled RT experiments. Ss with internal vs. external control of reinforcement expectancies were compared across these conditions. Internal-external proved to be irrelevant to condition effects, whereas sex of S proved important. Female Ss were quicker in self-directed conditions in both regular and irregular RT procedures, while always slower than males in general. When instructions were embellished to facilitate performance for a 3rd sample, external Ss did show some improvement. Data indicate support for previous research that has emphasized responsiveness of external Ss to E's structuring of tasks. External Ss seemed more affected by motivating directions especially in the other-directed condition, at the shortest preparatory interval. No clear-cut support, however, was found for the hypothesized interaction between internal-external and self- vs. other-controlled conditions. (French summary) (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of performance attributions on others' perceptions of the attributor.

Two studies investigated the effects that performers' attributions actually have on others' impressions. 441 undergraduates served as Ss. "Self-serving" internal attributions for success and external attributions for failure produced slightly higher ability evaluations than did the opposite pattern in 1 of the 2 experiments. However, in both experiments, these self-serving attributions produced lower ratings on a modesty dimension. External attributions were also perceived as relatively dishonest for all Ss in Exp I and for unsuccessful Ss in Exp II. Publicity (Exp I) and task variables (Exp II) did not affect ability, modesty, or honesty judgments made from performance attributions but did strongly affect the influence these dimensions had on overall likability evaluations. In general, Ss who made internal attributions tended to be better liked than those who made external attributions. The implications and limitations of these results are discussed relative to self-presentational considerations. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality factors associated with severe traumatic disability.

Investigated whether persons with traumatic injuries are more extraverted than nontraumatically disabled persons. 111 rehabilitation patients with either traumatic or nontraumatic disabilities associated with either chronic pain or motor loss completed the Eysenck Personality Inventory and the SCL-90. Results show that the traumatically disabled Ss with motor loss (paraplegia or quadriplegia) were more extraverted and less distressed than Ss with nontraumatic disabilities or with traumatically induced pain. It is contended that the external orientation characteristic of extraversion and the style of learning through actively and repeatedly challenging the environment may account for the prominence of extraversion within the traumatically disabled group with motor loss and for the relative absence of distress for this group in the highly structured medical/rehabilitation environment. It is suggested that the psychological adjustment of more extraverted personalities to disability involving motor loss may be better facilitated by interventions that encourage experiential learning and challenging environmental limits than by introspective psychotherapy or counseling. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Student locus of control and response to expectations about self and teacher.

85 female undergraduates with either an internal or external locus of control (LOC) (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) were used to investigate the relationship between LOC and responsivity to expectations regarding their own and their teacher's competence. Internal and external Ss, acting as students, were led to expect that they would perform well or poorly on a lesson and independently to expect that their teacher was competent or incompetent. After receiving a standardized lesson from a confederate acting as teacher, Ss' attitudes and performance were assessed. As predicted, internal Ss were more receptive to the expectation regarding self than external Ss. In contrast, the teacher expectation manipulation had no differential effect on internal and external Ss. Results suggest that students respond both to expectations about themselves and about their teacher and that LOC plays an important role in determining how an individual responds to such expectations. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of structured and unstructured leader roles on internal and external group participants

This study assessed the impact of structured and unstructured leader roles on measures of outcome for Ss who differed on the pretest dimension "locus of control." On the basis of their pretest locus of control scores, Ss were assigned to a structured or an unstructured marathon group. The treatment in the two 16-hour -arathons consisted of a defined series of exercises; the only difference between the two groups was the degree of leader control over member participation. As predicted, internal Ss in the unstructured group rated the leader and the group more psoitively than did external Ss, while the reverse responsivity occured in the structured group. Significant Locus of Control X Treatment interactions indicated that internal and external Ss reflected differential shifts in general anxiety, general depression, and locus of control as a function of treatment. The relationship between changes in self-actualization and locus of control and changes in conflict-handling styles and negative affects differed as a function of locus of control and treatment condition. The overall results coupled with prior findings tentatively support the appropriateness of an unstructured leader role for internal scores and a structured leader role for external scorers.     

Blood alcohol level discrimination by alcoholics: The role of internal and external cues.

Two groups of 4 chronic alcoholics lived in Rutgers' Alcohol Behavior Research Laboratory for separate 2-wk periods. During that time, Ss were taught to attend either to internal or to external cues to blood alcohol level (BAL). Mean age of the internal group was 36.2 yrs, and that of the external was 35.7 yrs. Internal Ss completed the Body Sensation Checklist and the Mood Adjective Check List. During a single training session, Ss received feedback on actual BAL following each of their BAL estimates. During pretraining and posttraining sessions, assessments of BAL estimation accuracy were obtained in the absence of feedback. Prior to training, both groups were equally inaccurate in estimating BAL. During training, when accurate BAL feedback was provided, estimation accuracy increased significantly for both groups. Once feedback of actual BAL was removed during the posttraining test session, however, only externally trained Ss maintained the ability to estimate BAL accurately. It is concluded that unlike the nonalcoholic Ss studied by H. Huber, R. Karlin, and A. E. Nathan (1976), the alcoholic Ss of the present study did not learn to discriminate BAL on the basis of internal feelings and sensations nearly as adequately as they did when they referred to external cues. It is suggested that these findings may have important implications for the clinical application of BAL discrimination training. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of disabled counselors' self-disclosures on client perceptions of the counselor.

In a videotaped counseling analog, 2 male counselors each portrayed (a) an obviously disabled counselor in a wheelchair and (b) a not obviously disabled counselor with visual impairment. Within each condition, counselors did or did not make self-disclosures about their disability. Ss were 169 university students, none of whom was disabled or had close friends or relatives who were disabled. Results indicate that counselors in several of the disability conditions were rated as being significantly more expert and attractive than able-bodied counselors. Counselor self-disclosures did not have a clearly negative or positive effect on Ss' perceptions. The hypothesis that awareness of a counselor's disability may enhance client perceptions of his or her credibility is discussed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internality, controllability, and the effectiveness of attributional interpretations in counseling.

Investigated an attributional approach to counseling in 2 studies. In Exp I, with 58 female and 24 male psychology students, the theoretical basis for the use of attributional interpretations was tested by giving Ss who had just received a negative social evaluation no information or information that stressed 1 of 4 types of causes: internal/controllable, internal/uncontrollable, external/controllable, and external/uncontrollable. Stressing internal/controllable causes produced more positive affective reactions and performance evaluations among internal locus of control respondents (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale), whereas externals were more variable in their responses. Exp II (24 Ss) assessed the generalizability of these findings by administering causal counseling to Ss who identified themselves as interpersonally anxious. Utilizing a quasi-counseling design, Ss were exposed to 1 of 2 interpretations emphasizing internal control or coping. Results of Exp II confirm initial conclusions that the effectiveness of causal counseling may depend on the individual's locus of control. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Resolving the relationships between placebos, misattribution, and insomnia: An individual-differences perspective.

Hypothesized that insomniacs who are more attentive to internal bodily processes would be more apt to yield a reverse placebo effect (i.e., go to sleep faster when given an "arousal" placebo and vice versa), whereas those attentive to external stimuli would be more likely to be directly influenced by the suggested effects of the placebo. 30 insomniac college students completed trait measures of private body consciousness, private self-consciousness, and self-esteem. Ss were given placebos to take before bedtime and were told that the capsules had arousing or relaxing side effects. As predicted, Ss with high private body consciousness exhibited a stronger reverse placebo effect than did Ss low on this dimension. Subsequent analyses revealed that this effect was entirely attributable to the low- rather than to the high-self-esteem Ss. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual attitudes and self-reported behavior of congenitally disabled adults.

A 1–3 hr personal interview was conducted and a questionnaire was administered to 45 18–35 yr old physically disabled Ss. The questionnaire dealt with (a) attitudes towards pornography, masturbation, and other aspects of sexuality; (b) degree of personal interest in sex; and (c) the extent and form of Ss' intimate sexual behavior. Results indicate that while Ss tended to express liberal attitudes toward sexuality, they did not indicate a high degree of personal interest in sex. Nearly all of the Ss were unmarried, and over half had never had a serious relationship with the opposite sex or any intimate sexual experience. There were indications that many Ss were uninformed about sexual matters. Ss' negative attitudes toward sex could be attributed to restrictive living conditions and insufficient sex education and guidance. As a group, females expressed more conservative attitudes toward sexuality than did males. Findings suggest the need for reorientation on the part of parents, educators, and society toward recognizing and accepting the emotional and sexual needs of disabled persons. (French summary) (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-administration and scoring errors of learning disabled and non learning disabled students on two forms of the self-directed search.

Examined the number and type of errors in self-administration and scoring made on Holland's Self-Directed Search (SDS) and Self-Directed Search—Form Easy (SDS—E) by 96 learning disabled and 96 nonlearning disabled high school students matched on socioeconomic status (SES), sex, and ethnicity. Both groups of Ss made more errors on the SDS than on the SDS—E. However, for errors resulting in inaccurate high-point codes, the learning disabled group made more errors on the SDS than on the SDS—E. There was no difference for nonlearning disabled Ss. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control and college women's role expectations.

Hypothesized that college women's locus of control orientations would be related to their role expectations, with women with an external locus of control having lower aspirations, more conservative sex-role ideologies, and less involvement in career planning than women with an internal locus of control. 116 female college juniors and seniors completed a career expectation scale, the Adult Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control Scale (ANSIE), and an index of sympathy for women's liberation ideology. Regression analyses using ANSIE scores as the predictor variable supported the hypotheses. Compared to Ss with internal orientations, Ss with external orientations expected to have less commitment to their careers, to work for a smaller portion of their lives, and to feel more discomfort due to violating sex-role stereotypes. In addition, Ss with a more external orientation reported less career planning activity, less positive feelings about their future careers, and more conservative views on women's liberation ideology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some characteristics in affiliation motivation.

151 students in Officer Candidate School were given a measure of affiliation motivation. (1) Increased affiliation cues in the environment increase the level of both goal oriented and threat oriented responses. (2) Popularity is unrelated to level of affiliation motivation but does determine the extent to which the S is goal or threat oriented. (3) Those Ss with high internal affiliation motivation are more responsive to external affiliation cues than are Ss with low internal motivation. (4) Those Ss with high affiliation motivation tend to estimate their popularity level more accurately and to estimate it higher than Ss with low affiliation motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex and ethnic differences in the use of power.

Hypothesized that women and Chicanos would make less internal and more external attributions for their own successful performance than would Anglo males. 40 Chicano male, 40 Chicano female, 40 Anglo male, and 40 Anglo female undergraduates participated as managers in an industrial simulation study. Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental conditions: designated powers vs unspecified powers, and supervision of male or female workers. Following the managerial task, Ss completed a questionnaire assessing their own performance and that of their workers. All Anglos devalued their workers as a function of controlling power and attributed workers' performance to external factors. All Ss tended to use their power to persuade workers. Males attempted to influence workers to a greater degree than did females. The predicted sex differences in terms of attribution were evident only among Anglos. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)