Differential expression of empathy in a counseling analogue.

Administered an incomplete sentences measure of conceptual functioning to 40 graduate counseling students. Ss then made written responses to 12 statements by each of 2 clients in a 2 * 2 factorial analysis of variance design (Counselor's Complexity * Analogue Complexity). Results indicate that (a) the more complex counselors expressed a significantly higher level of empathy, and (b) the level of empathy manifested was conditioned by a significant interaction effect between type of counselor and client. The implications for studying the phenomena of differential effects are discussed. (21 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of failure to meet client preference in a counseling interview analogue.

The hypothesis that failure to meet client preference for high- or low-directive counselor style would adversely affect interpersonal process was tested with 48 undergraduates in a counseling intervention analog oriented around students' actual problems. Students with strongly stated preferences for high- or low-directive counselors were randomly assigned to a counselor whose style was congruent or incongruent with their preference. The Therapist Behavior Scale was used to assess counselor directiveness. Dependent variables included 3 speech and 2 satisfaction measures. The data do not support the hypothesis. There was no evidence that failure to meet client preference adversely affected interview process. Clients of high-directive counselors expressed significantly greater satisfaction with the client–counselor relationship, spent only about 50% as much time per utterance, responded significantly more quickly, and exhibited less silence time while they held the floor than did clients of low-directive counselors. Results suggest that recent interest in ascertaining and meeting client preference may not be relevant to the quality of the interpersonal process. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physical attractiveness: Interactive effects of counselor and client on counseling processes.

192 college students, selected on the basis of their scores on an attractiveness battery, assumed the role of a client having social skill problems during 3 counseling sessions. Exp I was a factorial design in which the major variables were counselor's physical attractiveness, client's physical attractiveness, and sex of client. Exp II studied the interaction between physical attractiveness of the counselor and client's susceptibility to attractiveness as determinants of outcome. In both experiments, Ss roleplayed a client who interacted with a female counselor. The counselor's physical attractiveness had a major impact on her perceived therapeutic effectiveness and the client's expectancies about future success, irrespective of the client's physical attractiveness or sex. Male clients generally attributed a higher level of skill to the female counselor than did female clients. When the counselor was unattractive, clients who were more susceptible to attractiveness perceived her as less skillful than clients who were less susceptible to attractiveness. Physical attractiveness of the counselor accounted for over 50% of the variance in perceived effectiveness and future expectancy measures in both experiments. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physical attractiveness and counseling skills.

80 college students assumed the role of a client with social skill problems during 3 counseling sessions. Videotaped interchanges between a male client and a female counselor during an initial intake session were presented, and audiotapes with background slides of the counselor were presented during 2 subsequent therapy sessions. Physical attractiveness had an impact on perceived effectiveness independent of the counselor's skillfulness. In contrast, analyses of future expectancy data revealed that only in the good skills condition did attractiveness augment impressions about the desirability of the counselor in treating other social and behavioral problems. Correlational analyses suggested that clients in the good skills condition, who were most influenced by attractiveness in Session 1, judged the counselor most favorably following Session 3 in terms of her potential effectiveness in treating new problems. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Initial client expectancies in time-limited counseling.

Assessed the effects of (a) whether counseling was time-limited (12 sessions), (b) the interaction of time limits with the chronicity of the client's problem, and (c) the rationale given for time limits (time limits effective/appropriate vs a long waiting list) on the initial expectancies of clients. 80 female college students were asked to place themselves into the role of a client they saw interacting with a counselor on film. Pre- and postfilm written material manipulated the independent variables. Results show that Ss in the chronic (vs acute) problem condition had the most negative expectancies for the counseling relationship and outcome when the counseling was time-limited (vs unlimited). While the rationale for time limits did not affect the primary dependent variables, post hoc analyses of Ss' essay responses indicated that the waiting-list rationale stimulated more negative expectancies than the time-limits-effective/appropriate rationale. Contrary to predictions, time did not affect Ss' expectancies for client activity and responsibility and for counselor activity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Overcoming opposition and resistance: Differential functions of expertness and attractiveness in career counseling.

Hypothesized that counselor expertness would be effective in overcoming opposition to the content of counseling, whereas counselor attractiveness would be effective in overcoming resistance to the counseling process. Two studies of career counseling were conducted: a laboratory analog with 36 vocationally undecided undergraduates and a field study with 45 high school sophomores taking a career planning course. In both studies, counselor role (expert or attractive) was crossed with Ss' initial level of resistance in a repeated measures design. Pre- and postmeasures of Ss' attitudes toward vocational exploration (the content of counseling) and attitudes toward counseling were used to assess change in opposition and resistance, respectively. A behavioral compliance measure of opposition was added in Study 2. Study 1 supported only the resistance hypothesis. Study 2 supported both the opposition and resistance hypotheses and thus demonstrated the differential functioning of expertness and attractiveness. Implications for interpersonal influence research and for the practice of career counseling are discussed. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Templates of client change in short-term counseling.

A qualitalive analysis was performed of the change process experienced by 10 female clients engaged in short-term counseling (8–21 sessions). At the end of each session, clients completed the Important Events Questionnaire in which they described the most important event in the session, the reason for its importance, their thoughts during the event, their thoughts between sessions, and any change they were experiencing. These written responses were examined by 4 judges who attempted to map change processes over time. Three different patterns of change were identified: consistent change, interrupted change, and minimal change. The implications of these results for the understanding of change processes in short-term counseling are explored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of counselor sex and sex role and client sex on clients' perceptions and self-disclosure in a counseling analogue study.

Studied the effects of client sex and counselor sex and sex role on the counseling relationship, using an analogue format in which 35 male and 39 female undergraduate students participated in simulated counseling interviews. Ss were stratified by sex and randomly assigned to 1 of 4 treatment conditions: (a) masculine male counselor, (b) feminine male counselor, (c) masculine female counselor, and (d) feminine female counselor. At the conclusion of the interview, the S completed the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory (Form OS-M-64) and a questionnaire assessing the S's satisfaction with the counseling session. The audiotapes of the sessions were rated by trained judges for (a) positive affective self-references, (b) negative affective self-references, and (c) total non-affective self-references of the Ss. Male Ss were more satisfied with the counseling process than female Ss. Male Ss indicated greater satisfaction and a higher level of counselor regard with feminine counselors than with masculine counselors, regardless of counselor sex, but female Ss indicated greater satisfaction and a higher level of counselor regard with masculine counselors than with feminine counselors, regardless of counselor sex. Male Ss talked most about themselves with feminine female counselors and least about themselves with masculine female counselors, while female Ss talked most about themselves with feminine male counselors and least about themselves with masculine male counselors. These findings are related to the feminist pleas for same-sex pairing in the counseling relationship. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial similarity of client and counselor and client satisfaction with counseling.

Client evaluations of a precollege counseling interview were obtained for 13 black and 13 white students counseled by 3 experienced black counselors and 8 experienced white counselors. Black students tended to react more favorably to black and to white counselors than did white students. In general, racial similarity of client and counselor was not an important factor in these counseling interviews. The hypothesis that counselors are differentially effective in counseling students of a different racial background than their own lacks support. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of time-limited counseling on client change.

24 college-student clients seeking help from a counseling center for emotional or personal-social problems were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatment conditions: time-limited or undetermined-time counseling. Pre- and postcounseling measures were obtained relating to client status and problems. These included the Personal Orientation Inventory and Strupp's therapist questionnaire. Findings indicate significant improvement in terms of self-acceptance and increased independence as well as on various other self-report statements for clients in the time-limited group over a period of 8 wks. In addition, assessment by clients and the 15 counselors of improvement in both groups was significantly related. Implications of findings in terms of use of time-limited counseling in a time-limited environment, e.g., college counseling centers, are discussed. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of client pretesting on counseling outcome.

Tested 27 college students in 2 groups, 1 prior to and both after counseling. The hypothesis that pretesting would "reactively influence counseling" was partially upheld in that "pretesting was significantly associated with measured adjustment of clients after counseling." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived counselor characteristics, client expectations, and client satisfaction with counseling.

Examined (a) the relationship between perceived counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness and client satisfaction; (b) the relationships between specific client expectations on perceived counselor characteristics and client satisfaction; and (c) the effects of actual counselor experience level on perceived counselor characteristics and client satisfaction. The 55 counselors who participated in the study were either beginning or advancing practicum students, doctoral-level interns, or PhD counselors; clients were 72 students who sought help at a university counseling center. Clients completed an Expectations About Counseling (EAC) questionnaire before entering counseling, as well as the Counseling Evaluation Inventory (CEI) and Counselor Rating Form (CRF) after several weeks of counseling. CRF and CEI were correlated, but EAC scores were not strongly related to the CEI or CRF scores. Actual counselor experience level did not differentially affect CEI or CRF scores. Findings are discussed in terms of several variables (e.g., legitimate power, source variables, and client satisfaction) that may differentially affect the influence process over time. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of room environment on self-disclosure in a counseling analogue.

52 undergraduates took part in an investigation of the effects of room environment on self-disclosure in a counseling analog procedure. Intimacy of self-disclosure was significantly higher in a warm, intimate room (pictures on the wall, soft cushioned furniture, rug, soft lighting) than in a "cold," nonintimate room (bare cement, block walls, overhead fluorescent lighting). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in counseling center client problems across 13 years.

Are perceived increases in symptom severity in college counseling center clients real or imagined? Counseling center staff, retrospectively, reported that client problems are more severe now than in the past. Yet studies examining client distress levels at intake have found no significant increases. This study examined counseling center client problems across 13 years from the perspective of the treating therapist at the time of case closure. Increases were found for 14 of 19 client problem areas, whereas other areas retained stable levels, and 2 problem areas had a quadratic trend over time. These changes directly affect counseling service practices. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral analysis of client learning style during counseling.

Examined differences in the verbal behavior of 17 undergraduates classified as deep–elaborative learners and 13 undergraduates classified as shallow–reiterative learners on the basis of their scores on the Inventory of Learning Processes. Ss discussed personal problems in 2 30-min interviews with 1 of 2 female counselors. Verbal behavior of deep–elaborative Ss was rated as clearer, deeper, and more conclusion-oriented and personal than that of shallow–reiterative Ss by 2 male trained raters. Solely on the basis of this verbal behavior, both the raters and the counselors correctly identified the information-processing group to which each S belonged. There were no differences between groups on counseling satisfaction. Discussion of relationship problems was rated most deep–elaborative and discussion of academic problems most shallow–reiterative. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Improved detection of the early defecting counseling client.

Research into the factors predisposing clients to terminate prematurely from counseling often requires the ability to measure and predict defection or continuation, the readiness variable. This study attempted to improve upon the Counseling Readiness Scales by the empirical development of correction keys using the remaining items from the Adjective Check List. Ss were 186 female and 243 male undergraduate counseling clients. This effort was successful as far as improved discrimination between both male and female true negatives (clients predicted to drop who actually drop) and false negatives (clients predicted to drop who actually stay). However, similar efforts to improve the discrimination between true positives (clients predicted to stay who actually stay) and false positives (clients predicted to stay who actually drop) were unsuccessful. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of contrasting degrees of privacy on client self-disclosure in a counseling setting.

Studied the effect of reduced privacy in a counseling setting on client self-disclosure. A laboratory analog simulating an invasion of privacy by a 3rd party in a counseling setting was developed, and 74 undergraduates were randomly assigned to 3 experimental conditions: private--an interviewer and S were alone in an interview setting; invasion--a 3rd party (a confederate) invaded the privacy of the interview; spatial divider--a 3rd party again invaded the interview, but spatial dividers were introduced to enhance privacy. Results demonstrate that reduced privacy decreases client self-disclosure. Spatial dividers influenced the client's perception of privacy but failed to increase self-disclosure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A review of counseling analogue research methods.

Reviews counseling analog research methods used in the Journal of Counseling Psychology, including audiovisual studies (with both client and counselor behavior as dependent variables), quasi-counseling interviews, and experimental tasks not directly resembling a counseling interview. Emerging analog research models are identified and related methodological issues and boundary condition characteristics are discussed. Analog methodological features in need of further consideration are noted. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Matching perceptual predicates: Effect on perceived empathy in a counseling analogue.

Investigated J. Grinder and R. Bandler's (1976) assertion that responding with perceptual predicates similar to those used by a speaker results in increased perceived empathy. In an analog counseling interview with 63 female undergraduates, counselors tracked the use of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic perceptual predicates and then responded with either similar or dissimilar predicates of their own. Ss completed a revised version of the Empathy scale of the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory and an interviewer experience scale constructed by the author. A significant difference was found between treatments in the expected direction, with Ss in the matched predicates condition rating their counselors higher on perceived empathy. The procedure of continually tracking and matching perceptual predicates is contrasted with the method of identifying and matching a primary representational system used by other researchers, and questions are raised about the assumptions regarding representational systems in neurolinguistic programming. It is concluded that the tracking procedure was preferable for empirical and theoretical reasons. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of racial similarity and interviewer intimacy in a peer counseling analogue.

The effects of the intimacy of an interviewer's disclosure and the racial composition of a dyad on interviewees' liking for an interviewer, impressions of the interviewer, and subsequent self-disclosure were examined in a peer counseling analogue. We predicted and found that intimate disclosure by an interviewer is especially useful in eliciting self-disclosure from Black subjects. Furthermore, we predicted and found that differences in liking for and impressions of intimate and nonintimate interviewers would be particularly pronounced in those dyads in which the interviewer was White and the interviewee was Black with greater liking for and more positive impressions of the intimately disclosing interviewer. We discuss the implications of these results for the reported tendency for Blacks to terminate counseling prematurely and to disclose less than Whites in counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)