Metacognition and problem solving: A process-oriented approach.

Four studies were conducted to demonstrate that the positive effects of verbalization on solution transfer found in previous studies were not due to verbalization per se but to the metacognitive processing involved in the effort required to produce explanation for solution behaviors. In Experiments 1, 2, and 3, a distinction was made between process-oriented, problem-oriented, and simple "think aloud" verbalizations. The process-oriented (metacognitive) solvers performed significantly better than nonprocess control groups on both training and transfer tasks. Experiment 4 further demonstrated this effect by showing that process-oriented participants consistently form more sophisticated problem representations and develop more complex strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of causal attribution in personal problem solving.

In 2 studies with 180 undergraduates, self-appraised effective problem solving was associated with a unique pattern of causal attributions. In the 1st study, self-appraised effective relative to ineffective problem solvers tended to view the etiology of personal problems as largely within their own control and as due to their own failure to exert effort in the situations. In the 2nd study, self-appraised effective relative to ineffective problem solvers exhibited a more pronounced self-serving bias regarding successful and unsuccessful problem-solving attempts; effort attributions emerged as a distinguishing characteristic between the 2 groups. Self-appraised effective problem solvers viewed lack of effort as a primary component when their attempts to solve personal problems were unsuccessful. Results are discussed in relation to previous findings regarding causal attributions among different populations and to appropriate clinical interventions. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spatial problem solving in a dual runway task by normal and septal rats.

On the Maier 3-table spatial integration task, the addition of a dual runway configuration did not disrupt the successful performance of 10 normal male Long-Evans hooded rats or improve the deficit of 10 Ss with septal lesions. Both groups displayed a preference for the outside runway configuration during exploration. During testing, however, septal-lesioned Ss retained this preference, whereas normal Ss attempted solution by using the inside runway configuration. This fact, in addition to the apparent lack of habituation during exploration, suggests that septal-lesioned Ss did not acquire a spatial representation of the test situation. It is suggested that the inability of septal-lesioned rats in spatial situations is due to an inability to form rather than to use spatial maps. The cognitive representation of a problem space is considered in relation to route complexity, response biases, and self-corrections. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of self-efficacy and self-concept beliefs in mathematical problem solving: A path analysis.

Path analysis was used to test the predictive and mediational role of self-efficacy beliefs in mathematical problem solving. Results revealed that math self-efficacy was more predictive of problem solving than was math self-concept, perceived usefulness of mathematics, prior experience with mathematics, or gender (N?=?350). Self-efficacy also mediated the effect of gender and prior experience on self-concept, perceived usefulness, and problem solving. Gender and prior experience influenced self-concept, perceived usefulness, and problem solving largely through the mediational role of self-efficacy. Men had higher performance, self-efficacy, and self-concept and lower anxiety, but these differences were due largely to the influence of self-efficacy, for gender had a direct effect only on self-efficacy and a prior experience variable. Results support the hypothesized role of self-efficacy in A. Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Everyday problem solving in older adults: Observational assessment and cognitive correlates.

Older adults' ability to solve practical problems in 3 domains of daily living was assessed using a new measure of everyday problem solving, the Observed Tasks of Daily Living (OTDL). Findings showed that the OTDL formed internally consistent scales representing 3 distinct factors of everyday problem solving. Moreover, the OTDL showed convergent validity with related scales of a paper-and-pencil test. Older adults' performance on the OTDL was significantly correlated with their scores on measures of basic mental abilities. Path analysis showed that age affected older adults' performance on the OTDL directly and indirectly via cognitive abilities. Participants' education and health affected their everyday competence indirectly through cognitive abilities. The effects of perceptual speed and memory span were mediated by fluid and crystallized intelligence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Information processing as problem solving: A collaborative approach to dealing with students exhibiting insufficient competence.

Although psychologists involved in the training of graduate students understand the importance of responding effectively to exhibited insufficient clinical competence, the extant literature offers little guidance on how best to make decisions during this process. The authors propose an adaptation of the information processing approach to problem solving applied to guide faculty in addressing student behaviors. Each of the steps will be discussed, along with their implications and our recommendations. A case example is presented to illustrate how that approach can be used by faculty. Finally, the authors discuss broader research and professional implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflections on conceptual tempo: Relationship between cognitive style and performance as a function of task characteristics.

Reflectives have been shown to outperform impulsives on tasks that require a cautious, systematic approach. A study was conducted to determine whether reflectives, particularly high-anxious reflectives, would show superior performance on speeded tasks; i.e., whether they would exhibit flexibility vs continued caution at the expense of performance. 46 male and 54 female 4th graders, selected by their scores on the Test Anxiety Scale for Children and the Lie Scale for Children as being reflective and impulsive, high and low anxious, were presented with speeded tasks of increasing difficulty. Results reveal that contrary to prediction, high-anxious reflectives performed as well as low-anxious reflectives and both were generally faster and more accurate than impulsives. Only for girls on the most difficult task was there evidence that reflection in combination with high anxiety resulted in overly cautious behavior and impaired performance. Results suggest a definition of cognitive style that stresses the strategy used rather than the disposition for long or short decision times. In addition, a model is proposed to predict the relative speed and accuracy of reflectives and impulsives as a function of the strategy required and the degree of intertrial transfer on the task. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group performance in a cognitive task.

On a cross-word puzzle task performed by 60 pairs of male Ss, correlations between group performance and performance of the individuals (independently determined) were calculated. 82% of the true group performance variance on the task could be predicted from the individual performance scores. "It is suggested that the nature of the task is important in studies of group performance, and that the existence of 'group' phenomena should be empirically demonstrated rather than assumed." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teasing out cognitive development from cognitive style: A training study.

Tested whether cognitive development and cognitive style (field-dependence/independence) are different dimensions. The present study was conducted in the context of J. Pascual-Leone's (1974) model of cognitive development, in which an important aspect of cognitive development is delineated by mental capacity, and an important dimension of cognitive style is field-dependence/independence. 74 5.5–6.5 and 7.5–8.5 yr old Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 trainers who taught half the group with a method developed by R. Case and the present 1st author (1974), and the other half of the group with a method designed to train Ss to actively look for informational cues. It was found that cognitive development and cognitive style are distinctly different dimensions because posttest data showed that, under training conditions that were suited to S's cognitive style, field-dependent older Ss were able to perform developmentally appropriate "control-of-variables" tasks at the same level as their field-independent age peers. Both of these groups outperformed younger field-independent Ss. Findings are discussed with regard to the theoretical model, their relevance to the stylistic dimension of reflection/impulsivity, and their educational implications. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

External support for collaborative problem solving in a simulated provider/patient medication scheduling task.

Taking medication requires developing plans to accomplish the activity. This planning challenges older adults because of age-related cognitive limits and inadequate collaboration with health providers. The authors investigated whether an external aid (medtable) supports collaborative planning in the context of a simulated patient/provider task in which pairs of older adults worked together to create medication schedules. Experiment 1 compared pairs who used the medtable, blank paper (unstructured aid), or no aid to create schedules varying in complexity of medication constraints (number of medications and medication co-occurrence restrictions) and patient constraints (available times during the day to take medication). Both aids increased problem-solving accuracy and efficiency (time per unit accuracy) compared to the no-aid condition, primarily for more complex schedules. However, benefits were similar for the two aids. In Experiment 2, a redesigned medtable increased problem-solving accuracy and efficiency compared to blank paper. Both aids presumably supported problem solving by providing a jointly visible workspace for developing schedules. The medtable may be more effective because it externalizes constraints (relationships between medication and patient information), so that participants can more easily organize information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of autobiographical memory in social problem solving and depression.

Depressed patients frequently exhibit deficiencies in social problem solving (SPS). A possible cause of this deficit is an impairment in patients' ability to retrieve specific autobiographical memories. A clinically depressed group and a hospital control group performed the Means-End Problem-Solving (MEPS; J. J. Platt & G. Spivack, 1975a) task, during which they were required to attend to the memories retrieved during solution generation. Memories were categorized according to whether they were specific, categoric, or extended and whether the valence of the memories was positive or negative. Results support the general hypothesis that SPS skill is a function of autobiographical memory retrieval as measured by a cuing task and by the types of memories retrieved during the MEPS. However, the dysfunctional nature of categoric memories in SPS, rather than the importance of specific memories, was highlighted in the depressed group. Valence proved to be an unimportant variable in SPS ability. The cyclical links among autobiographical memory retrieval, SPS skills, and depression are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A protocol illustrating a competency-based approach to cognitive therapy.

Presents a competency-based approach (CBA) that divides treatment into 9 distinct stages. These are (1) orientation, (2) basic self-observation skills (SBSs), (3) intermediate SBSs, (4) advanced SBSs, (5) hypothesis formulation and intervention planning, (6) test hypothesis and active intervention, (7) test development and alternative strategies, (8) test alternative strategies, and (9) termination. Using a CBA, clients are not allowed to move to a more advanced treatment stage until all criteria of the less advanced stage are met. The CBA seeks to reframe therapy and depathologize the process by focusing on new learning rather than unlearning. The CBA facilitates the formation of a collaborative therapeutic relationship and enhances clients' confidence in the therapeutic process and their own ability to learn. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A neuropsychological approach to cognitive remediation: Microcomputer applications.

Presents a case report to illustrate a neuropsychological approach to the principles and practice of cognitive remediation and the potential application of microcomputer-assisted procedures in remediating cognitive impairment. Initial neuropsychological evaluation of this right-handed female who sustained a severe head injury in a car accident indicated acquired impairment in cognitive functioning. An individually designed and systematically implemented program of microcomputer exercises focused remediation on particular deficits. A general improvement in performance on the microcomputer exercises was observed during the course of the retraining program. Follow-up neuropsychological evaluation further indicated significant gain in new learning and problem-solving skills, mental flexibility, and psychomotor functioning. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between cognitive style and cognitive development: A 2-year longitudinal study.

Examined developmental changes in the relationship between reflection–impulsivity, spatial perspective taking, and conservation behavior in 40 4–8 yr olds. Ss were administered the Matching Familiar Figures Test. Results indicate no relationship between these variables for 4-yr-olds. At 6 and 8 yrs of age, however, moderately strong negative correlations were found between impulsivity and the expression of operative knowledge. Structural regression analyses suggested that the expression of a reflective cognitive style at 6 yrs of age was causally linked to the emergence of operativity at 8 yrs of age. Longitudinal data confirmed a developmental shift from what is seen in perspective-taking tasks to how it is seen. Discussion focuses on the role of cognitive styles in the development and use of cognitive structures and on the nature of perspective-taking development. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A cognitive approach to child abuse prevention.

This investigation tested the incremental utility of cognitive retraining as a component within a program designed to prevent child maltreatment. High-risk families (N=96) were randomly assigned to a control condition, home visitation modeled after the Healthy Start program (unenhanced home visitation), or home visitation that included a cognitive component (enhanced home visitation). Mothers were identified late during pregnancy or soon after birth, and their participation continued for 1 year. Lower levels of harsh parenting were found among mothers in the enhanced home visitation condition than among those in the unenhanced home visitation or control conditions. Prevalence of physical abuse (percentage of mothers who were abusive) during the first year was 26% in the control condition, 23% in the unenhanced home visitation condition, and 4% in the enhanced home visitation condition. Benefits were greatest in families that included a medically at-risk child. A linear pattern of benefits was found for child health; as program features were added, benefits for child health increased. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dynamic assessment of cognitive and affective factors contributing to learning difficulties in adults: A case study approach.

Increased attention to the cognitive and learning difficulties of adults has meant that some adults with primary emotional problems are being diagnosed as learning disabled; this in turn impedes the provision of appropriate counseling interventions and promotes inappropriate vocational placement. Traditional test instruments are inadequate for determining the presence and nature of the learning problems that adults are experiencing. Three case studies are presented to demonstrate the efficacy of Feuerstein's Learning Potential Assessment Device (LPAD) to discriminate among cognitive and affective variables that may be contributing to adults' learning difficulties. There follows a critical discussion focusing on the key characteristics of the LPAD that were instrumental in identifying the factors contributing to the 3 clients' learning difficulties. The four areas of focus are (a) the content-free nature of tests, (b) the examiner–examinee interaction, (c) the change in orientation to the process rather than the end product, and (d) modifications in test interpretation. Implications for counselors assessing adults with learning difficulties in academic and vocational settings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of metaphor on processing style in a persuasion task: A motivational resonance model.

Previous research on metaphor and persuasion has suggested that metaphorical language elicits an assimilation effect wherein positive metaphors elicit positive attitudes toward the communication topic and negative metaphors elicit negative evaluations. The authors of this article propose that metaphorical content can increase or decrease motivation to systematically scrutinize a persuasive communication depending on the extent to which it resonates with the listener's preferences and interests. Consistent with this model, 2 experiments demonstrate that a sports metaphor increases message-relevant elaboration and sensitivity to argument strength among individuals who enjoy sports. Conversely, the sports metaphor reduces message-relevant elaboration and sensitivity to argument strength among individuals who dislike sports. Findings are discussed in the context of related research that suggests metaphor can serve alternative functions in a persuasive communication task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The job characteristics approach to task design: A critical review.

Reviews the development of the job characteristics approach of J. R. Hackman and E. E. Lawler (see record 1971-29858-001) and of Hackman and G. R. Oldham (see PA, Vols 54:02031 and 57:02075) to task design and evaluates subsequent research relevant to that model. Theoretical statements of the model are not considered entirely clear, the associated empirical work is seen to frequently fail to test the relations discussed, and adequate multimethod instruments were not found for the assessment of several constructs. It is suggested (1) that future task design research should attend to alternative theoretical perspectives that distinguish between situational attributes of tasks and incumbent cognitions about those attributes and (2) that tasks and employee responses to both types of task-relevant constructs should be examined in the organizational contexts in which they occur. (150 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

SHAPE-assisted intuitive decision making and problem solving: Information-processing-based training for conditions of cognitive busyness.

The present study tested the usefulness of a normative model of decision making designed for individuals and teams that emphasized 5 processes needed in cognitively busy decision situations: scrutinize symptoms, hypothesize solutions, analyze proposed solutions, perform modifications and corrections, and evaluate results (SHAPE). All teams (102) were trained in task skills and practiced solving problems before the experimental decision-making situation, a cognitively busy computer-simulated decision situation. Half of the teams were trained in the SHAPE algorithm. Half of the teams received no decision-making training (the intuition condition). Results indicate that SHAPE-assisted intuitive decision making is faster and more accurate than unassisted intuitive decision making. Furthermore, SHAPE-trained teams experienced lower levels of stress, maintained better task performance, and performed more synchronously than teams receiving no decision-making training. Preliminary evidence that SHAPE creates a shared metacognitive strategy is presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)