Effects of learning modules on the acquisition of counseling strategies.

Two studies investigated the effects of learning modules and classroom lecture on the acquisition of 3 counseling strategies. In Exp I, 42 students in introductory counseling courses were assigned randomly to classroom lecture and written self-paced module groups. Results indicate that the latter group performed significantly better than the lecture group on both a post- and retention test. In Exp II, 64 counselor trainees were assigned randomly to 1 of 3 treatment groups: classroom lecture, written module, and slide-tape module. No significant differences were found between treatment groups for acquisition of 2 counseling strategies: problem identification or developing goals. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of grouping and response characteristics of instructional objectives when learning from prose.

Conducted a study with 375 high school students. The effects of requiring an overt or covert response to objectives when grouped before or interspersed throughout a text were investigated for intentional and incidental learning. In addition, 2 densities of specific and general objectives were investigated. Groups of about 30 Ss each were tested by their homeroom teachers. Results show greater intentional learning with objectives than without objectives. No difference was found between overt and covert responses, but overt responding resulted in less incidental learning than covert responding, particularly when objectives were interspersed. A strong relationship was found between correct identification of object-relevant text sentences and subsequent test performance. Finally, more time was required for overt than covert responding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of a Cognitive Adjunct Procedure Within a Microtraining Situation.

The present study examined the generalization effects of three methods of counselor training: cognitive-behavioral (CB), behavioral (B), and programmed learning (PL). Each of 45 low-scoring females, prescreened on empathic communication, was randomly assigned to one of these groups. The CB and B groups received training via manuals, videotapes, and individual supervision, whereas the PL group received programmed manuals only. The CB group was exposed to cognitive strategies in addition to the skill acquisition content of the B and PL groups. Each trainee completed an interview before, after, and 4 weeks after training. The effects of training on different communication skills were examined and assessed by interview, written, and self-report measures. Findings indicated that the CB group was more empathic at posttraining and demonstrated better communication skills than the PL group at follow-up. The B group generally fell in the intermediate position between the CB and PL groups. These findings are discussed in terms of different cognitive strategies and the benefits of programmed manuals within microtraining. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The contribution of lecture supplements to the effectiveness of an attitudinal film.

To evaluate the effect on expressed attitudes toward discipline of lecture supplements to a film, 3 comparable lectures designed to point out significant film sequences were developed, for use before the film, after the film, or part before and part after the film. Mean scores on an attitude scale for 3 film groups were compared with the mean score of a film-only control group. There were no significant differences attributable to lecture placement among the 3 film groups, but the film-plus-lecture groups were generally more favorable in attitude toward military discipline than the film-only group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of experience and subjects' use of directions upon learning from prose.

Investigated the effects of 4 objective treatments (none, before text, after text, and combined before and after text) and 2 types of experience (practical and experimental) for intentional and incidental learning. A 1st analysis showed (a) greater overall performance with, rather than without, experience, (b) greater intentional than incidental learning, and (c) an Objective * Learning interaction. The primary finding of a 2nd analysis was that 2 types of experience (practical and experimental) did not differentially affect learning with the 4 objective treatments. The main finding of a 3rd analysis was that the inclusion of additional test items to measure incidental learning did not differentially affect learning with the 4 objective treatments. The 4th analysis showed that the 4 objective treatments consumed varying amounts of inspection time when the Ss were inexperienced, but not when they were experienced. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stable and transient determinants of students' perceived control: Implications for instruction in the college classroom.

Stable uncontrollability and transient loss of control were examined in conjunction with quality of college instruction. Students with internal and external loci of control received no training or either contingent or noncontingent feedback. We manipulated the quality of instruction by using a ?-hr videotaped lecture that varied in expressiveness (low and high). The dependent measures were student achievement and achievement attributions. For those who received no prelecture feedback, expressiveness improved the achievement of internal- but not external-locus students on a test after the lecture. Expressiveness effects on achievement and causal attributions also differed, depending on whether students previously received contingent or noncontingent feedback before the lecture. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Incidental and intentional sequence learning in youth-onset psychosis and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

The goal was to compare incidental and intentional spatial sequence learning in youth-onset psychosis and ADHD. The authors tested 8- to 19-year-olds with psychosis or ADHD and healthy controls on a serial reaction time (RT) task and used manual and oculomotor measures to examine learning. Participants were also administered a block in which they were explicitly instructed to learn a sequence. As in our previous studies with healthy adults and children, oculomotor anticipations and RTs showed learning effects similar to those in the manual modality. Results showed intact sequence-specific learning but fewer oculomotor anticipations in both clinical groups during incidental learning. In intentional learning, only the psychosis group showed impairments compared to controls. There were no interactions between age and diagnosis. Thus, the psychosis group showed relatively preserved incidental learning despite impairments in intentional learning. Additionally, both clinical groups showed impairments in the ability to search for, extract, and anticipate regularities (whether the regularities were there or not), but not in the ability to respond to these regularities when they were there. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning the control of variables strategy in higher and lower achieving classrooms: Contributions of explicit instruction and experimentation.

Students (n = 797) from 36 4th-grade classrooms were taught the control of variables strategy for designing experiments. In the instruct condition, classes were taught in an interactive lecture format. In the manipulate condition, students worked in groups to design and run experiments to determine the effects of four variables. In the both condition, classes received the interactive lecture and also designed and ran experiments. We assessed students' understanding using a written test of their ability to distinguish valid from invalid experimental comparisons. Performance on this test improved from the pretest to the immediate posttest in all conditions, and gains were maintained at a 5-month delay. For students from both higher and lower achieving schools, gains ordered as follows: both > instruct > manipulate. However, students from higher achieving schools showed greater gains in all conditions. Item analyses showed that the interactive lecture improved students' understanding of the need to control irrelevant variables, and experimentation improved students' understanding of the need to vary the focal variable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of pictorial and written adjunct aids in learning from text.

Compared the effects of pictorial and written (questions) adjunct aids interspersed through text on factual recall. 63 undergraduates read 1 of the following forms of text: questions before relevant passage, questions after, pictures before, pictures after, questions and pictures before, questions and pictures after, no adjunct aids. Results show that reader-generated pictures and experimenter-provided questions were equally facilitative and resulted in increased retention over the control group. Question position effects characteristic of mathemagenic studies were replicated. Identical position effects were demonstrated for reader-generated pictures used as adjunct aids. Implications for mathemagenics and prose learning are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pigmented variant of benign oncocytic lesion of the pharynx

The goal of this study was to analyse students' perceptions of anatomy teaching. A questionnaire was distributed to two classes of first year dental students taught anatomy in both problem-based learning (PBL) and traditional formats. The questionnaire explored the students' most preferred techniques for learning anatomy, their examination preferences and their perceived level of mastery of anatomy. Fifty-seven (95%) students completed the survey. The most commonly used study aids were atlases, dissection and lecture notes (in descending order). Students expressed the desire for the final examination to include both written and oral components. Six months after the final examination, the students reported their perceived level of mastery of anatomy as either "very good" or "OK". Even in the PBL curriculum 39% of both classes felt it is necessary to have quizzes during the course to motivate and guide them in studying anatomy.     

Explaining our sins: Factors influencing offender accounts and anticipated victim responses.

Two studies examined the effects of offender blameworthiness, consequence severity, and offender gender on written accounts provided after a hypothetical predicament. Participants imagined themselves as the offending party in a predicament and provided written accounts after their victims' reproach. Accounts were coded using P. Sch?nbach's (1980) account taxonomy. Study 1 results showed that although concessionary strategies were the most prevalent overall, they were more prevalent for more blameworthy offenses than less blameworthy offenses. Women's accounts were more complex than men's, especially for more blameworthy offenses. In Study 2, in which 3 levels of blameworthiness were used, offenders proffered significantly more concessions after negligent acts than after either accidental or intentional acts, producing a curvilinear pattern. Again, accounts of men and women differed, with men proffering fewer and less complex concessions and more lies than did women. Deviations from politeness theory predictions are explained by reference to face-saving tensions inherent in social predicaments, tensions absent in less problematic social encounters. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual study, interactive multimedia, or cooperative learning: Which activity best supplements lecture-based distance education?

Distance education is the "fastest growing form of domestic and international education" (M. S. McIsaac & C. N. Gunawardena, 1996, p. 403). Unfortunately, research investigating effective use of distance education has not kept pace with implementation. In this study, the authors evaluated how lecture-based distance education could best be supplemented with various learning activities. Undergraduate volunteers participated in 1 of 3 post-distance-education lecture activities: individual study, cooperative learning, or interactive multimedia. Then they were tested on knowledge of lecture material and were asked how much they enjoyed the distance education experience. Results indicated that although the interactive multimedia group enjoyed the learning activity more than the cooperative learning and individual study groups, the cooperative learning group learned the most. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lecturing, reading, and modeling in counselor restatement training.

In this study with a total of 92 Caucasian female counselor trainees, Ss' verbal behavior change was viewed as being dependent on the training program components, i.e., verbal, written, and model presentations. Specific hypotheses were derived concerning the quantitative production of the target verbal behavior given the training program design. Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental groups: (a) control group; (b) lecture presentation; (c) lecture and reading presentation; and (d) lecture, reading, and model presentation. After exposure to the training program detailing restatement, Ss responded to 10 audiorecorded client statements. One-way analyses of variance demonstrated that the lecture presentation produced a significant increase of target verbal behavior, as did the addition of reading. Model presentation after the 2 symbolic model presentations did not cause a significant increase in production. Implications of symbolic modeling for counselor training and research are discussed. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Facilitation of extinction by an increase or a decrease in trial duration.

Five experiments examined the effects of altering the duration of a conditioned stimulus (CS) for extinction. For the first 3 experiments, rats received conditioning with a 10-s CS before different groups received extinction with a CS that was either the same duration or longer than that used for conditioning. For the remaining 2 experiments, conditioning was conducted with a 60-s CS before different groups received extinction with a CS of either the same duration or a shorter duration than that used for conditioning. In all experiments, extinction progressed more readily when the CS duration was different for the 2 stages than when it was constant. The results are discussed in terms of rate expectancy theory and associative learning theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactive effects of training condition and septal lesions on perseverative responding in the rat.

In a study with 30 male Wistar rats, Ss that had received septal lesions either prior to acquisition of a position habit (Group SAR) or immediately after position habit acquisition (Group SR) were tested on 2 reversals of the task. Compared with control-operated Ss, both groups of Ss with septal lesions exhibited position-habit reversal deficits. The 2 groups with septal lesions could not be distinguished in terms of the total number of errors made during reversal learning, but could be distinguished on the basis of the type of error committed. Compared with Group SR, Group SAR made significantly more perseverative errors on the 1st reversal and significantly fewer perseverative errors on the 2nd reversal. Group SR made significantly more nonperseverative errors than Group SAR on both reversals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sebum excretion in hidradenitis suppurativa

Hypertext is a non-linear method of text presentation. It necessitates the use of a computer to store data as a series of nodes that can be called up in any desired sequence and, as such, is a new form of discovery-based learning. This paper describes a Hypertext tutorial in cephalometrics and its subsequent testing on first-year clinical dental students. Students were divided into two groups: the first received a conventional lecture; the second used the Hypertext tutorial. Testing was by means of conventional multiple choice questions. The results showed that there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups, although the computer tutor was shown more consistently to improve the knowledge of the students than did the conventional lecture. Most students who used the computer program found it enjoyable, but time consuming; less than half found it easy to follow.     

Role of attention in face encoding.

Ss studied faces in a full- or a divided-attention condition and then received a recognition test that included old faces, new faces constructed by combining facial features from previously studied faces ("conjunction faces"), and partly or completely new faces. Full- but not divided attention Ss responded "old" more often to old than to conjunction faces; all Ss responded "old" to these faces more often than to partially or completely new faces. Thus it is less attentionally demanding to encode facial features than it is to encode their interrelations. Dividing attention had identical effects on an incidental and an intentional learning group. Exp 3 demonstrated that dividing attention primarily affected explicit recollection rather than stimulus familiarity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A randomized trial of physicians and physical therapists as instructors of the musculoskeletal examination

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effectiveness of physicians vs physical therapists as instructors of the musculoskeletal examination to second year medical students. METHODS: A randomized trial conducted over 3 consecutive years in a physical diagnosis course at The University of North Carolina. During the first (baseline) year, medical students received education about the musculoskeletal examination from a lecture and supervision by clinical preceptors. This increased in the second and third (intervention) years where random halves of each class received supplementary clinical instruction which included a structured manual, a videotape, and supervised practice with either general internal medicine physicians or physical therapists. Outcomes were measured from student performance on a practical test of clinical skills, and by written student evaluations of the supplementary instruction. RESULTS: As measured on the clinical examination, performance during the intervention years improved over that during the baseline year in both intervention groups. Measures of medical students' clinical skills did not correlate with measures of academic aptitude. CONCLUSIONS: Clinical education about the musculoskeletal examination should be structured and systematic. Medical students prefer clinical education that is active, provides clear directions, and gives them performance feedback.     

Writing cognitive educational objectives and multiple-choice test questions

Guidelines for writing cognitive objectives and multiple-choice test questions for pharmacy educational programs are suggested. Cognitive educational objectives relate to intellectual skills and can usually be tested with multiple-choice questions. Pharmacy educators writing cognitive objectives should focus on the major, not minor, knowledge or skills that participants in an educational program are expected to acquire; ensure that the objectives are supported by instruction; define the desired performance of the learners; ensure that the objectives are observable and measurable; and define the learning level for each objective (i.e., knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, or evaluation). Each multiple-choice test question should be written with a view to assessing the learner's achievement of one of the stated objectives. Educators should write test questions that are clear and concise, are in the form of complete sentences, include one clearly correct or best response, are phrased positively rather than negatively, and give no clues as to the correct answer. The learning level of each question should match that of the objective the question is designed to test. Educators should weight tests fairly by including the same number of questions for each objective. It may be necessary to include some higher-level questions to ensure assessment of the competence level at which the program is aimed. Cognitive educational objectives should be observable and measurable; multiple-choice test questions should correspond to specific objectives and be based on the appropriate learning level.     

Action learning in practice: How do participants learn?

Action learning and peer consultation are ways of learning with fellow professionals that are gaining in popularity. In small groups, professionals submit work-related issues for systematic discussion with colleagues. This study examined whether the promise of action learning is indeed realized. The study involved a written questionnaire containing 31 closed questions answered by 126 participants in action-learning groups. In response to the question "How do participants learn?" a picture emerged of a learning group that learns more during than after the action-learning sessions and learns primarily by exploring issues in depth and receiving personal feedback. Divergent or reflective learning seems to reign. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)