Behavior modification through covert semantic desensitization.

Matched 12 male and 18 female snake-phobic undergraduates on degrees of behavioral avoidance and subjective fear. Ss were randomly assigned to (a) an experimental group who received a semantic counterconditioning of meaning treatment; or (b) a control group who were pseudodesensitized on a buffer task. Results show that snake-phobic Ss initially rated the word "snake" on the semantic differential scale as significantly negative in evaluative meaning. Ss in the experimental group showed significant alteration in their semantic differential rating of the word snake, significant decrement in their fear of snakes, and significant behavioral approach toward a live gopher snake. Semantic counterconditioning of meaning is interpreted to provide the basis for some desensitization procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Experimental desensitization of phobia.

24 snake phobic Ss participated in an experimental investigation of systematic desensitization therapy. Ss who experience desensitization showed a greater reduction in phobic behavior (as measured by avoidance behavior in the presence of the phobic object and self-ratings) than did nonparticipating controls. Ss tended to hold or increase therapy gains at a 6-month follow-up evaluation, and gave no evidence of symtom substitution. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

External validity of laboratory fear assessment: Implications from two case studies.

Exposed 1 snake-phobic woman and 1 spider-phobic woman to a live snake or spider after they received systematic desensitization. In one assessment condition the 2 Ss were asked to approach and handle a caged snake or spider as in the traditional behavioral approach test, whereas in the other condition the Ss were exposed to the uncaged phobic stimuli. Both Ss manifested substantially greater physiological and cognitive distress while looking at the uncaged stimuli from a distance of 30 ft than when actually touching the caged snake or spider. Although both Ss were able to touch the caged snake or spider, they still reported being unable to engage in behaviors that were previously inhibited because of their phobia. Both Ss emphasized the importance of feeling in control when the phobic stimulus was caged but feeling out of control when the phobic stimulus was uncaged. Implications for the external validity of the behavioral approach test are discussed. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Systematic desensitization versus implosive therapy.

Compared systematic desensitization (SDT) and implosive therapies (IT) for their effectiveness and efficiency in reducing snake phobic behavior in 36 otherwise normal adults. SDT and IT Ss differed significantly from control Ss in posttreatment avoidance of a snake and in change of reported discomfort. SDT and IT, however, did not differ in effectiveness. Results of a 6-mo follow-up show that IT was more efficient in that treatment was completed in 45% of the time required for SDT. Results were qualified by the finding that SDT had a consistent and continuing effect across Ss and across time whereas IT effect was more variable. Occurrence of unusual disturbance of Ss during SDT and of IT Ss between sessions are discussed. (23 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Unconscious anxiety": Phobic responses to masked stimuli.

Tested the hypothesis that an unconscious preattentive perceptual analysis of phobic stimuli is sufficient to elicit human fear responses. Selected snake- and spider-fearful Ss, as well as normal controls, were exposed to pictures of snakes, spiders, flowers, and mushrooms. A separate forced-choice recognition experiment established backward masking conditions that effectively precluded recognition of experimental stimuli both for fearful and nonfearful Ss. In the main experiment, these conditions were used to compare skin conductance responses (SCRs) to masked and nonmasked phobic and control pictures among fearful and nonfearful Ss. In support of the hypotheses, snake- and spider-fearful Ss showed elevated SCRs to snake and spider pictures as compared with neutral pictures and with responses of the nonfearful Ss under both masking conditions. Ratings of valence, arousal, and dominance indicated that the fearful Ss felt more negative, more aroused, and less dominant in relation to both masked and nonmasked phobic stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative contributions of modeling, informational influences, and physical contact in extinction of phobic behavior.

Treated 1 member of a matched triad of adult snake phobics with a participant modeling procedure in which he received the benefits of modeling, verbal information, and direct contact with the feared object. 1 of the 2 other Ss, who observed the treatment, listened to the persuasive communications of E, thus receiving the joint benefits of modeling and verbal information. The 2nd O received only the benefits of modeling. Relative to an untreated control group, all treated Ss showed significant increases in approach behavior, reduction in approach-related fear, and positive changes in attitudes toward snakes. Between-condition analyses revealed that modeling accounted for the majority of the change variance, with direct contact contributing significant increments to approach behavior and fear reduction but not to attitude change. Verbal information made no significant contribution to the positive changes; in fact, indirect evidence indicated that it had a negative influence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Systematic desensitization: Expectancy change or counterconditioning?

Exposed 44 snake and spider phobic undergraduates to either (1) a form of systematic desensitization treatment; (2) a technique, called T-scope therapy, which embodies most of the expectancy-manipulating features of desensitization, but does not contain the technical elements of the procedure, i.e., relaxation, visualization, and the construction of an anxiety hierarchy, (3) T-scope therapy, presented as an "incomplete" and probably ineffective form of treatment; or (4) no treatment. There was no significant differences (on self-rating, runway, or interview measures) between the effects of the systematic desensitization procedure and T-scope therapy, although Ss receiving either of these treatments improved significantly more than those who received no treatment or T-scope therapy administered under the "low-expectancy" condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Convergence of self-reports and independent observers: Dominance and friendliness.

This study examined the validity of self-report measures and measures based on independent observers in the laboratory. It used 2 self-report formats, ratings on adjectives and ratings for specific situations, and 2 formats for responding by independent observers, ratings and behavior counts. The personality characteristics studied were dominance and friendliness. Ss participated in 6 laboratory situations: twice with a same-sex friend, twice with a male stranger, and twice with a female stranger. The ratings and behavior counts had high convergence, particularly when assessments were aggregated across several situations. Men gave accurate self-reports about dominance, and women gave accurate self-assessments of friendliness. The most consistent evidence for convergence in specific situations was in situations with the friend. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Immunization against the observational conditioning of snake fear in rhesus monkeys.

Examined the effects of extensive prior exposure to snakes on subsequent observational conditioning of snake fear in 24 rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Three groups of Ss were given 1 of 3 kinds of pretreatment: (1) An immunization group spent 6 sessions watching a nonfearful monkey behave nonfearfully with snakes; (2) a latent inhibition group spent 6 sessions by themselves behaving nonfearfully with snakes with total exposure time to snakes equal to that for the immunization group; and (3) a pseudoimmunization group spent 6 sessions of observational conditioning in which they watched fearful monkeys behave fearfully with snakes. When subsequently tested for acquisition of snake fear, the pseudoimmunization and latent inhibition groups showed significant acquisition, but 6 out of 8 Ss in the immunization group did not. Thus, it seems that for a majority of Ss, prior exposure to a nonfearful model behaving nonfearfully with snakes can effectively immunize against the subsequent effects of exposure to fearful models behaving fearfully with snakes. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential ordering of stimulus presentation in systematic desensitization.

50 snake-phobic female Ss were matched on degree of behavioral avoidance and subjective fear and then randomly assigned to 1 of 3 desensitization or 2 control groups: (a) imagined stimuli presented in order of increasing aversiveness, (b) stimuli presented in a decreasingly aversive order, (c) random order presentation, (d) pseudodesensitization, and (e) no-treatment control. Ss in the 3 desensitization groups showed significantly greater improvement than did Ss in either control group. While no differences were found between Ss exposed to an increasingly aversive hierarchy and Ss who received a decreasing order, the random order tended to be less effective than the other 2. An ascending aversive order of stimulus presentations is not an essential and integral part of successful desensitization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of a self-control manual, rapid smoking, and amount of therapist contact on smoking reduction.

Evaluated a self-help treatment manual consisting of stimulus control, rapid smoking, and coping relaxation techniques. 69 Ss, average age 32.6 yrs, who smoked at least 20 cigarettes/day were randomly assigned to (a) a self-help manual with minimal (2 sessions) therapist contact, (b) a self-help manual with high (7 sessions) therapist contact, (c) a high-therapist-contact rapid smoking condition, or to (d) a high-therapist-contact normal-paced smoking condition. Results indicate that while the overall program was moderately effective, groups did not differ on percentage of baseline smoking or on number of Ss abstinent at posttreatment or 3-mo or 6-mo follow-up. Informant reports of Ss' smoking behavior and carbon monoxide analyses of expired air samples confirmed these findings. Ss in the minimal contact condition generally followed through on their programs, required less therapist time, and were at least as successful as those in other groups in terms of long-term results. Implications for self-help manuals for smoking reduction are discussed. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Detrimental effects of a self-reward contracting program on subjects' involvement in self-administered desensitization.

Assessed a self-reward contracting procedure intended to facilitate the completion of self-administered desensitization. 24 self-referred snake phobics received either (a) self-administered desensitization, (b) self-administered desensitization with self-reward contracting, or (c) a self-administered placebo with self-reward contracting. Results show that the self-reward procedure significantly impaired the amount of time and number of sessions that Ss devoted to their self-instructional manuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group vicarious desensitization of test anxiety.

Examined whether vicarious desensitization, using videotapes and a small group format, could be used as a treatment for test anxiety. 43 test anxious college students were administered the Test Anxiety Inventory and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Ss received either vicarious desensitization, study skills training, or both treatments; there was also a no-treatment control condition. Self-report measures indicated that vicarious desensitization resulted in lower test and trait anxiety than study-skills training alone or no treatment. Academic performance measures, obtained posttreatment and at a 3-mo follow-up, indicated no differential effectiveness. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Private and public self-attention, resistance to change, and dissonance reduction.

Three experiments with 257 undergraduates investigated the effects of self-directed attention on dissonance reduction. Ss were induced to write counterattitudinal essays. In Exp I, mirror presence during either an attitude premeasure or the counterattitudinal behavior led to reduced attitude change. Exp II explored whether the discrepancy between present and prior research was due to the manner in which self-attention was manipulated. Ss were exposed either to a mirror or to a TV camera and were asked to report both their post-behavioral attitudes and their perceptions of their counterattitudinal behavior. Consistent with the results of the 1st study, Ss in the mirror condition again showed the least amount of attitude change. They did, however, reduce dissonance by altering their perceptions of their behavior. Consistent with prior findings, Ss in the camera condition tended to reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes, but did not distort their behavior. Exp III conceptually replicated these results by selecting Ss on the basis of their chronic levels of private and public self-consciousness. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of modeling and desensitization in reducing dentist phobia.

Notes that although many persons avoid dentists and dental work, counseling techniques that eliminate dental avoidance behavior and reduce stress have not yet been systematically examined. The present study explored the effects of systematic desensitization and social-modeling treatments with placebo and assessment control groups. Each of the 4 groups contained 9 dental-phobic adults (mean age = 30 yrs). A behavioral measure as well as several attitude and fear arousal scales (e.g., the Fear Survey Schedule) were used as dependent variables. Modeling was more effective than desensitization as shown by the number of Ss who went to a dentist, and modeling and desensitization were more effective in reducing arousal and improving attitudes than placebo and assessment groups. The importance of demonstrating behaviors coupled with covert practice, or self-modeling, is discussed. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A controlled study to assess the clinical efficacy of totally self-administered systematic desensitization.

43 highly anxious self-referred snake phobics (mean age, 33.5 yrs) received either therapist-administered desensitization, self-administered desensitization with weekly therapist phone calls, totally self-administered desensitization, a self-administered double-blind placebo control, or no treatment. Pretreatment to posttreatment and follow-up assessments of Ss' reactions and attitudes toward snakes include behavioral approach, self-report, and heart rate period data. The latter 2 measures showed significant differences between desensitization and control Ss. It is concluded that within the context of moderate treatment effects, results support the clinical efficacy of totally self-administered desensitization. Implications for the clinical management of specific fears are discussed. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A brief commentary on the usefulness of studying fears of snakes.

Used therapy analogue studies with Ss who feared snakes or rats to evaluate types of behavior therapy. In a small pilot study Es were able to desensitize 4 Ss to fears of snakes or laboratory rats. However, the 2 control Ss also overcame their fears of snakes. They had been instructed to hold the snake when it was presented to them and to act unafraid. They were also told that they would overcome their fears in this manner. It is suggested that any "technique" that helps a person confront the fear of snakes may "cure" him, that studying the treatment of snake fears may be irrelevant to the understanding of treating clinical neuroses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children learning to use the telephone: Emergency and non-emergency calling.

Examined developmental differences in children's telephoning skills. Four girls and 4 boys from each of preschool, 1st, 3rd, and 5th grades were interviewed. Ss demonstrated how they would telephone a friend and an ambulance and how they would receive calls from a stranger and a friend. A general developmental trend was found for Grades 1, 3, and 5. Incoming calls were performed better than outgoing calls, but the gap decreased with increasing grade level. Preschool Ss performed as well as Ss in Grade 1. Children of all grades were generally knowledgeable about the technical procedures for contacting help in an emergency, but did not know what information was important and necessary to supply. 62.5% of Ss responded that parents were not home during the stranger call. Results support previous studies suggesting that children may lack the skills for stranger and emergency calling. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Long-term effects of behavior therapy: A 12-month follow-up.

19 female undergraduates who underwent various behavioral treatments designed to reduce a specific fear were paid to return for follow-up 1 yr. later. In general, treated Ss' rat fears were less intense 1 yr. after treatment than they had been prior to treatment, with those treated by systematic desensitization slightly less fearful than those treated with "rational therapy." Subsequently, the desensitized Ss eliminated a snake fear by themselves, but the effects of this self-administered desensitization were not maintained. Additionally, 6 children treated by operant conditioning techniques for various problems were reevaluated 1 yr. later. All behavior change was maintained, but only those who had graduated to social reinforcement showed additional improvement. No evidence for symptom substitution was obtained from either group of Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transfer, behavioral improvement, and anxiety reduction in systematic desensitization.

Studied the degree of transfer and fear change associated with 4 levels of desensitization, pseudodesensitization, and no treatment in 74 female snakephobic undergraduates. Only Ss desensitized to 75% or more of the hierarchy demonstrated reliably greater reductions in avoidance behavior than controls. However, Ss completing 50% or less of the hierarchy showed smaller transfer decrements than those who finished the hierarchy. Results also suggest that repeated exposure tends to improve transfer efficiency. On the posttest, desensitization Ss reported significantly less anxiety than no-treatment controls when repeating their highest pretreatment responses, but were no different from either control group when performing new approach responses, suggesting that behavioral improvement is not dependent upon the elimination or inhibition of conditioned emotional arousal. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)