Problems associated with the typological measurement of sex roles and androgyny.

Four new measures of sex role style—the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ), the Personality Research Form (PRF) ANDRO scale, and the Masculinity and Femininity scales of the Adjective Check List (ACL)—each define sex role style and androgyny in similar conceptual and psychometric terms. Although these scales have often been used interchangeably, the current study examined interscale comparability among these inventories. Although correlations among the respective masculinity and femininity row (continuous) scale scores on the BSRI, PAQ, PRF ANDRO scale, and the ACL were moderately high, a large proportion of the 130 undergraduates were classified into different sex role categories (masculine typed, feminine typed, androgynous, or undifferentiated), with the category depending on the inventory used. In fact, when corrected for chance agreements, the majority of Ss (61%) were actually categorized discrepantly by any pair of inventories. This suggests limited comparability of sex role research findings based on different inventories, and when sex role styles are dichotomized into broad typological quadrants, as is the current practice in sex role research, substantial predictive utility is lost. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological androgyny and sex role flexibility: A test of two hypotheses.

In a conceptual replication and extension of a study by S. L. Bem and E. Lenney (1976), 90 male and 118 female college students rated their comfort in and preference for performing several series of masculine, feminine, and neutral activities. Correlations between ratings and scores on the masculinity (instrumentality) and femininity (expressiveness) scales of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) of J. T. Spence and R. L. Helmreich (1978) tended to be theoretically reasonable in sign but in each sex were low in magnitude and only occasionally significant. Classification of Ss into 4 PAQ groups (androgynous, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated) on their joint masculinity and femininity scores revealed that androgynous and masculine Ss of both sexes had higher comfort ratings, independent of type of task, than did feminine and undifferentiated Ss, suggesting the importance of instrumentality and expressiveness per se. For forced-choice preference ratings, significant differences were found only in males, masculine Ss having a stronger preference for sex-typed tasks than those in other categorical groups. The PAQ variable, however, accounted for only a small percentage of the variance. The data support the Spence-Helmreich hypotheses that the PAQ and similar instruments are largely measures of instrumental and expressive personality traits rather than sex roles and that these personality dimensions are only minimally related to many sex role behaviors. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bruxism: A critical review.

Bruxism, the nonfunctional gnashing and grinding of the teeth, has been primarily viewed as a dental phenomenon. The literature reviewed in this paper, however, demonstrates that bruxism may be viewed as a psychophysiological disorder. A brief discussion of the relevant literature on the incidence and effects of bruxism indicates that the behavior may have significant symptomatic effects for a substantial proportion of the population. The contribution of dental, psychological/behavioral, and systematic/neurophysiological factors to the development and maintenance of the disorder are extensively reviewed. Treatments derived from these models are also evaluated. Finally, methodological problems intrinsic to the study of this behavior are presented, and suggestions for future research are made. (139 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptualizations of sex roles: A life span developmental study.

Investigated the proposition that sex role development is a life span process. It was predicted that late adolescence and adulthood would be characterized by a relative degree of relaxation of sex role specialization. At each of 3 age levels (7th grade, 12th grade, and adult) 40 male and 40 female Ss indicated on the Attitude Check List which traits they considered desirable in a male or female target ideal. Two major results were found: (a) Male and female Ss gave stereotyped responses primarily when rating an opposite-sex target, but responses were less stereotyped when judging a same-sex target figure. (b) The expected stereotype relaxation was not observed; instead, the age-related patterns primarily reflected an increased endorsement of socially desirable traits. The latter finding is in disagreement with previous research, and possible reasons for this discrepancy are explored. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Autokinetic phenomenon: A critical review.

Reviews studies grouped under the areas of response problems, dynamic determinants, individual differences, clinical studies, reduction of movement, and theories of autokinesis (AK). Much of the work to date is concerned with the demonstration of various "suggestion effects" without regard to the basis of residual AK. Determinants of AK are many and varied but little can be said about their relative potencies. Although a modified version of the Gregory-Zangwill model may serve well, there is presently no single theory of AK which accounts for all the data. Further developments in the theory and control of AK hinge upon the sedulous development of improved techniques for measuring AK. 3 criteria for measuring AK are offered. (3 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Postpartum depression: A critical review.

A review of the literature suggests that there are 3 types of postpartum dysphoric mood states: the maternity blues (a fairly common, transient disorder), postpartum affective psychosis (relatively rare), and postpartum depression (as many as 20% of postpartum women may develop mild to moderate depression). The etiology of postpartum depression remains unclear, although numerous biological, psychological, and sociopsychological factors have been proposed as etiologically relevant. There is some empirical support for these notions, but methodological and conceptual problems hinder the development of a coherent theoretical framework for understanding the etiology, course, and treatment of the disorder. Recent data indicate a relation between stress and depression; future research into postpartum depression is needed to determine the contribution of psychosocial factors (e.g., life events and social support). Medical complications during pregnancy, infant variables, and the effect on the infant–mother relationship also need to be studied. (3 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Custody evaluations: A critical review.

Discusses the role of evaluators in child custody litigations, current methods of custody evaluation, and the content of such evaluations. The value of clinical impressions and standardized assessment instruments is considered, and ways of eliciting the child's preference are examined. Ethical dilemmas associated with the performance of custody evaluations are discussed, and it is argued that mental health professionals should serve as strictly impartial evaluators. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Structural priming: A critical review.

Repetition is a central phenomenon of behavior, and researchers have made extensive use of it to illuminate psychological functioning. In the language sciences, a ubiquitous form of such repetition is structural priming, a tendency to repeat or better process a current sentence because of its structural similarity to a previously experienced ("prime") sentence (J. K. Bock, 1986). The recent explosion of research in structural priming has made it the dominant means of investigating the processes involved in the production (and increasingly, comprehension) of complex expressions such as sentences. This review considers its implications for the representation of syntax and the mechanisms of production and comprehension and their relationship. It then addresses the potential functions of structural priming, before turning to its implications for first language acquisition, bilingualism, and aphasia. The authors close with theoretical and empirical recommendations for future investigations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group polarization: A critical review and meta-analysis.

Reviews recent (1974–1982) group polarization studies that address either 1 of the 2 primary explanatory mechanisms thought to underly group polarization: social comparison and persuasive argumentation processes (SCP and PAP). A summary of the effect sizes of 21 published articles (33 independent effects) suggests that SCP and PAP occur in combination to produce polarization, although the persuasive argumentation effects tend to be larger. Four questions that suggest how to integrate PAP and SCP into a more conceptually coherent position—a position that served to integrate group polarization with other social psychological phenomena—are presented. (68 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attitudes toward sex roles among A and B psychotherapists.

81 male practicing psychotherapists rated themselves and an unknown male and unknown female adult on 82 bipolar sex-role relevant adjectives. Results show that both A and B therapists considered themselves equally masculine, but that A therapists were more likely to ascribe to themselves traditional feminine characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fibromyalgia. A critical review

Fibromyalgia is a chronic pain syndrome, more common in women. Its prevalence is estimated around 2% in the general population, and up to 20% among rheumatology outpatients. Besides musculoskeletal pain, symptoms as fatigue and sleep disturbance are considered characteristic. Research criteria have been set up, but their seemingly preciseness is unable to distinguish clearly between fibromyalgia and other functional somatic syndromes (chronic fatigue syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome) and psychiatric disorders (depression, anxiety), with which a striking comorbidity is documented. The diagnosis of fibromyalgia does not theoretically require the exclusion of muscle, joint, or metabolic diseases, but in clinical practice this problem proves to be of crucial importance. There are numbers of pathophysiological hypothesis for fibromyalgia, but none of them is fully satisfying: muscle is probably innocent; sleep disturbance, although sometimes considered a landmark of the syndrome, is unspecific; stress response studies show subtle anomaly; psychiatric disorders may represent factors of vulnerability and perpetuation rather than causes. We propose to include some of these etiological contributors in vicious circles leading to a "final common pathway" characterized by generalized hyperalgesia. Treatments of fibromyalgia, whether pharmacological (antidepressants) or psychological (cognitive-behavioral therapies) are of little efficacy, and the global prognosis of fibromyalgia is poor. However, the outcome might prove better outside the specialized clinics in which studies of chronic sufferers with severe abnormal illness behaviors are done. The social consequences of the popularization of the diagnosis of fibromyalgia should not be neglected.     

The open-field test: A critical review.

Examines the use in the literature of the open-field test, especially with regard to the development of a standard form. The various procedures and their shortcomings are discussed, with particular reference to the seemingly inconsequential details which have been shown to modulate open-field performance per se. Dependent parameters are considered both with regard to their reliability and their validity for the measurement of such underlying constructs as emotionality. (92 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dropping out of treatment: A critical review.

After a discussion of methodological issues, literature on dropping out of treatment is critically reviewed in 6 areas: hospital treatment of general psychiatric and tubercular patients, outpatient treatment of internal medical conditions, alcoholism, heroin addiction, general psychiatric outpatient psychotherapy, and double-blind drug studies. 15 factors were found to predict dropping out in 100%, 83-88%, and 60-75% of the relevant studies: (a) social isolation and/or unaffiliation, therapist attitudes and behavior, discrepancies between patient and therapist treatment expectations; (b) passive-aggressive behavior, family attitudes and behavior, motivation, behavioral and/or perceptual dependence, psychological mindedness and/or denial, symptom levels and symptom relief, socioeconomic status, sociopathic features, alcoholism and/or drug dependence; and (c) age, sex, and social stability. (101/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The neuropharmacology of aggression: A critical review.

A review of the literature on aggression from a multidisciplinary standpoint reveals evidence for differentiating several kinds of aggression. This differentiation can be seen in the psychopharmacological literature, where some compounds have been effective in altering some forms of aggressive behaviors but ineffective in altering others. Differences in endogenous levels of neurotransmitters have also been reported, but there was little correlation between changes in neurotransmitter systems and effectiveness of compounds supposedly altering these systems. A tentative hypothesis is offered which attempts to explain the behavioral effects of these drugs in terms of their action on several neurotransmitter systems. (4 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Seasonal affective disorder and phototherapy: A critical review.

Seasonal affective disorder and phototherapy have had little exposure to clinicians and researchers in the field of psychology. Past research is critically reviewed, the prevalence of seasonal affective disorders is discussed, and the characteristics of 2 types of seasonal affective disorders, winter depression and summer depression, are described. The effectiveness of phototherapy as well as research on a number of important characteristics of phototherapy, such as light intensity, duration, time of administration, and spectral qualities, are reviewed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Imitation and action in autism: A critical review.

Considers the evidence for an imitative deficit in autism and for the possible role of deficiencies in the representation of actions. An argument is developed for the claim that the imitation problem is diagnostic of a basic information-processing rather than a social dysfunction. Reviews are offered of the empirical literature on gestural imitation in autism (and other developmental disorders) and the more anecdotal evidence for problems in the domain of action development in autism. An account that may help to integrate these areas is suggested, as are directions for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional stress and eyewitness memory: A critical review.

The eyewitness literature often claims that emotional stress leads to an impairment in memory and, hence, that details of unpleasant emotional events are remembered less accurately than details of neutral or everyday events. A common assumption behind this view is that a decrease in available processing capacity occurs at states of high emotional arousal, which, therefore, leads to less efficient memory processing. The research reviewed here shows that this belief is overly simplistic. Current studies demonstrate striking interactions between type of event, type of detail information, time of test, and type of retrieval information. This article also reviews the literature on memory for stressful events with respect to 2 major theories: the Yerkes-Dodson law and J. A. Easterbrook's (1959) cue-utilization hypothesis. To account for the findings from real-life studies and laboratory studies, this article discusses the possibility that emotional events receive some preferential processing mediated by factors related to early perceptual processing and late conceptual processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implosive therapy and flooding procedures: A critical review.

Presents a brief explanation of implosive theory and technique and critically reviews the case reports and experimental investigations of implosive therapy and flooding procedures with human Ss. Much of the research has produced confusing and contradictory results, and these findings are discussed in terms of the type of response rehearsed in therapy, exposure time, and cognitive factors. It is concluded that there is, at present, no convincing evidence of the effectiveness of implosion or flooding with human Ss, nor is there any evidence that the techniques are superior to systematic desensitization. In addition, the theoretical basis of implosive therapy appears to be unsupported. Finally, serious realistic and ethical questions are raised in regard to the desirability of the clinical use of implosive procedures. (78 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behaviour-therapy research with children: A critical review.

Evaluated behavior-therapy research with children published from 1965-1969 as to experimental design and execution. Studies were examined for use of control groups, base line, systematic variation of treatment, unbiased O, and follow up. Results indicate most studies to be inadequate. (French summary) (63 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactance as impression management: A critical review.

Recent attempts to reinterpret reactance theory in terms of impression management are considered in light of available empirical evidence. Contrary to an impression management view, reactance effects have been observed (a) where there was only a tenuous "glimpse" of a social agent, (b) where freedom threat or elimination occurred by chance or was not intentional, (c) where Ss' responses were not observable by either the influencing agent or a relevant observer, and (d) where Ss' responses could not be individually identified. Also inconsistent with the impression management formulation of reactance is evidence that neither an influencing agent nor a relevant observer must be present for freedom restoration by a third party to be effective. It is concluded that although self-presentation might account for some reactance effects, the theory as a whole cannot be subsumed. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)