Short- and long-term effects of repetitive mother–infant separations on social development in rhesus monkeys.

Rhesus monkey mother–infant dyads were each subjected to 16 4-day physical separations between the infants' 3rd and 9th mo of life. Infants displayed protest behavior following each separation but only minimal signs of despair. Their protest diminished somewhat over repeated separations. The mothers' separation reactions were considerably milder (and changed little) over repeated separations. The separations appeared to retard the development of normal mother–infant relationsips: Relative to nonseparated control dyads, separated infants displayed excessive levels of infantile behaviors, although their mothers did not differ from control mothers in levels of any behavior. Near the end of their 1st yr, all infants were permanently separated from their mothers and housed as peer groups. Over the next 30 wks during peer housing, few behavioral differences emerged between previously separated and control Ss. However, when exposed to their mothers during preference tests, previously separated Ss seemed to avoid their mothers in sharp contrast to the mother-seeking activity displayed by control infants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Infant auditory discrimination in preterm and full-term infants as a predictor of 5-year intelligence.

Examined the relation between responsiveness to auditory novelty in full-term and preterm infants at 4 mo and subsequent intellectual performance at 5 yrs of age. At 4 mo, cardiac response to repetitive and novel auditory stimulation was assessed using a variable-trials habituation procedure for 9 full-term and 19 preterm infants. Ss were followed until the age of 5 yrs, and intellectual performance was measured using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. A statistically significant correlation of .60 was found between infant novelty response scores and 5-yr intelligence scores. Mother's education also related to 5-yr performance, although not significantly when the novelty response was partialed out. Results suggest that measures of early perceptual-memory development may reflect early cognitive processes necessary for later intellectual performance. Within the preterm group, there was a sample of male infants with below-average intelligence at 5 yrs. These Ss failed to respond to novelty, and their mothers had not completed high school. Thus, a subsample of high-risk Ss can be identified early in life. A significant positive relation was also found between scores on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development and intelligence at 5 yrs of age. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Postnatal growth and psychomotor development in small for gestational age Brazilian infants.

Early psychomotor development (PD), as measured by the Gesell Developmental Schedules, of 29 infants that were small for gestational age (SGA) was more dependent on postnatal growth than the PD of 51 infants whose birth weight was appropriate for gestational age. The significant association of postnatal growth with PD in SGA Ss at 4, 8, and 12 mo of age was not explained by birth weight or SES. Findings support the hypothesis that the factors that determine postnatal growth in SGA infants also affect neurointegrative development. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal learned helplessness and physiologic response to infant crying.

Exposed 49 mothers of 3–4 mo old infants to varying degrees of control over the termination of a tape of infant crying. Each S received 1 of 3 instrumental pretreatments: (a) escape—4 buttonpresses terminated the infant cry, (b) inescape—buttonpress was unrelated to cry termination, and (c) control—mothers passively listened to the cry. Following pretreatment, each S was given an instrumental shuttlebox task consisting of a solvable task with an alternation response that controlled cry termination. Cardiac responses were monitored throughout the session. Ss pretreated with inescapable infant crying showed debilitated performance on the 2nd task. Failure to escape, number of trials to escape criterion, and latency of response to the cry were all greater for the inescape group. In addition, only Ss with prior experience controlling the cry showed cardiac deceleration, an index of attentional processing, during a 10-sec anticipatory period preceding the cry episode of the solvable instrumental task. These cardiac data provide evidence that the important behavioral differences may in part be attributable to differential processing of cues signaling the onset of crying. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cardiac and behavioral responsivity to tactile stimulation in premature and full-term infants.

Attempted to determine whether psychophysiological differences exist between prematurely born and full-term infants in their responsivity to tactile stimulation and in their ability to discriminate among different intensities of such stimulation. The performance of 20 full-term neonates in active sleep was compared with that of 20 premature infants of comparable conceptional age (average, 38.5 wks). Whereas the full-term Ss showed both behavioral responsiveness and heart rate acceleration to the stronger levels of stimulation, the premature Ss showed weaker behavioral responses and no significant cardiac response. Even on those trials where the premature infants did show strong behavioral response, their cardiac response was smaller than that of the full-term infants. A significant sex difference for premature Ss indicated that the lower behavioral responsiveness was due mainly to males. Issues raised were whether the lack of cardiac responsivity in the premature infant is secondary to his/her heightened level of autonomic arousal whether it reflects a lack of integration between motor and autonomic systems. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spontaneous and elicited smiles and vocalizations of infants in four Israeli environments.

Compared smiling behavior of infants during a regular waking day to their smiling during a brief elicitation by the mother and investigated the extent to which a mother is able to intentionally elicit smiling or vocalization. 76 male infants at ages 2, 4, 7, and 11 mo from kibbutz, Bedouin, middle-class, and lower-class environments were observed in the presence of their mothers for one complete day. Mothers were asked to try to elicit smiles from their infants and then to attempt to make their infants vocalize. Results indicate that 2-mo-olds smiled least and that Ss from different environments differed in rate of smiling during the entire day of observation. Age and environment differences disappeared and the rate of smiling was 5 times higher for the intentional brief elicitation of smiling. The rate of smiling decreased and age differences reappeared when mothers tried to elicit vocalization. In this situation vocalization was more readily induced. Mothers' behavior during the 2 elicitations and the effects of environment and infant's age on mothers' behavior are presented and discussed. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adequate mothering by partially isolated rhesus monkeys after observation of maternal care.

13 laboratory-born female monkeys were allowed to remain with their mothers for about 4 mo and were subsequently singly caged in rooms where they were able to see other monkeys. Ss that did not see mothers caring for their infants neglected their own firstborn. In contrast, Ss that were allowed to observe separately caged mother–infant pairs accepted their own infants but initially held them in atypical positions. Only 2–3 yrs of natural group life, which probably involved observation of mothering and carrying younger group members, led to acceptance as well as normal holding postures. Results indicate that visual exposure to maternal care, which must take place when the animal is older than about 4 mo, leads to acceptance of the neonate. However, subsequent tactual experience is usually required for learning to hold the infant properly. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comportement d'attention du nourrisson et modulation du langage maternel.

Studied the relationship between the attentional behaviors of infants and the prosodic modulations of their mothers' speech. Ss were 14 mothers (aged 27 yrs) and their infants (aged 4 mo). Mother–infant dyads were observed during face-to-face interactions. Mothers' speech prosody was analyzed in relation to the gaze behaviors of their infants. (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childrearing and impulse control in toddlers: A naturalistic investigation.

Observed 18 firstborn toddlers (aged 12–15 mo) and their mothers in their homes on 2 occasions (1 wk apart) for 45 min on each day. Childrearing practices were assessed through interviews and naturalistic observations; impulse control, defined as the nonmanipulation of breakable or dangerous objects, was assessed by describing the objects that infants manipulated. Findings reveal that mothers made numerous demands on their infants for impulse control and enforced them promptly and consistently. Mothers who relied on physical punishment had infants who were more likely to ignore maternal prohibitions, to manipulate breakable objects, and to show low levels of nonverbal competence 7 mo later. Physically punishing mothers made the fewest objects available in their homes for infant manipulation. Implications of these findings for the development of early impulse control and cognitive functioning are considered. Results show that individual differences in impulse control during this time period are related to individual differences in disciplinary style, which are related to characteristics of the physical environment, compliance to maternal demands, and infant performance on standardized intelligence tests. Findings illustrate the importance of a multimethod approach to developing impulse controls. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Erratum to Rose, Schmidt, and Bridger.

Reports an error in the original article by by Susan A. Rose, Katalin Schmidt, and Wagner H. Bridger (Developmental Psychology, 1976, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 311-320). In the article, the Method section and the Results section were placed in the wrong order. The correction is listed here. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1976-25557-001.) Attempted to determine whether psychophysiological differences exist between prematurely born and full-term infants in their responsivity to tactile stimulation and in their ability to discriminate among different intensities of such stimulation. The performance of 20 full-term neonates in active sleep was compared with that of 20 premature infants of comparable conceptional age (average, 38.5 wks). Whereas the full-term Ss showed both behavioral responsiveness and heart rate acceleration to the stronger levels of stimulation, the premature Ss showed weaker behavioral responses and no significant cardiac response. Even on those trials where the premature infants did show strong behavioral response, their cardiac response was smaller than that of the full-term infants. A significant sex difference for premature Ss indicated that the lower behavioral responsiveness was due mainly to males. Issues raised were whether the lack of cardiac responsivity in the premature infant is secondary to his/her heightened level of autonomic arousal whether it reflects a lack of integration between motor and autonomic systems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children of mothers with borderline personality disorder: A multimodal clinical study.

Studied 9 children (aged 5–17 yrs) whose 5 mothers were in a day treatment program for adults with a diagnosis of borderline personality disorder. The children were studied to determine if they were at risk for serious emotional difficulty. Five Ss were administered the Rorschach, the TAT, the WISC—R, the Bender-Gestalt Test, the Draw-A-Person Test, and the Kinetic Family Drawing. Three Ss met weekly for 4 mo in an activity-interview group led by 2 female therapists. Case histories are provided for each S in which it is illustrated that they experienced serious emotional delays and exhibited disturbed behavior requiring further treatment. Data suggest that the Ss were responsive to, and at least somewhat disorganized by, affective stimulation, despite attempts to limit their experience. In addition, they all seemed to rely on similar and relatively unsophisticated defenses and coping strategies. In effect, they all relied on fantasy or withdrawal from reality rather than verbal expression in dealing with their painful experience of the world. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral correlates of mental growth: Birth to thirty-six years.

Reports findings of the Berkeley (California) Growth Study, a 36-yr longitudinal study of mental development. 74 full-term, healthy infants of White English-speaking parents, were studied over 7 mo. 63 Ss were followed for at least 3 yrs, 48 Ss were seen regularly over 18 yrs, and 54 Ss were interviewed and tested at age 36 yrs. Measures included newly developed tests of 1st-yr mental precocity, the Block Q-Sort, and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Results reflect stability over the 36 yrs in both personality variables and mental abilities. Boys' high verbal scores correlated with calmness, positive responsiveness, and activeness: Girls' high verbal scores correlated with shyness at 10–24 mo and possibly unhappiness at 10–22 mo. While boys' behaviors and intelligence correlated with maternal behavior in the 1st 3 yrs through age 18 yrs, girls' corresponded to parental abilities. This suggests that girls are more resilient and less permanently affected by early experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of oscillating waterbeds and rhythmic sounds for premature infant stimulation.

22 healthy infants born at gestational ages of 28–32 wks were randomly assigned to experimental or control groups within the 1st 4 days following birth. Experimental Ss were placed in incubators equipped with oscillating waterbeds and rhythmic sounds; control Ss were placed in traditional incubators. Results indicate that general developmental progress was enhanced in the experimental group by the stimulation procedure. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Maternal Emotional Reactions to the Premature Infant in the Context of the Family": Erratum.

Reports an error in "Maternal emotional reactions to the premature infant in the context of the family" by Robert M. Hodapp and Kathryn T. Young (Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science Revue canadienne des Sciences du comportement, 1992[Jan], Vol 24[1], 29-40). The authors of the article should be listed as Robert M. Hodapp, Yale University, Kathryn T. Young, Yale University, Marie Algieri, Hospital for Sick Children, and Klaus Minde, Montreal Children's Hospital. The two last names were inadvertendly omitted. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1992-27071-001.) Examined maternal emotional reactions to the birth and early development of premature infants and whether such reactions are influenced by specific social support variables. 22 mothers of premature infants (aged 26–31 wks) were rated on 13 general psychological characteristics common to "maternal mourning reactions" of mothers of handicapped and at-risk children. Ss experienced relatively brief adverse reactions. The proposed 3-stage model of maternal mourning (i.e., shock; emotional disorganization; emotional organization) did not appear to characterize this sample. Ss with supportive spouses and close friends experienced less severe emotional reactions, as did Ss whose husbands were looking forward to becoming fathers. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral and hormonal responses to separation in infant rhesus monkeys and mothers.

Examined the effects of social stimuli on behavioral and physiological responses in 9 infant rhesus monkeys, 8 Ss at 4–6 mo (Exp I) and 7 of the original Ss and an additional S at age 8–10 mo (Exp II). Infants and mothers were removed from the social group and housed as dyads. Following this period, infants were removed and separated under 4 counterbalanced conditions: (a) totally isolated—placed in a holding cage for 24 hrs; (b) mother present, no contact—housed in a single cage in view of their mother, no contact; (c) mother present, contact—similar to above, with mother in proximity to the infant; and (d) peer present—separated but in proximity to a peer. In Exp I, infants rarely vocalized when totally isolated but showed high rates of vocalization in the presence of the mother, both with and without contact. In the mother-present conditions, they failed to show a plasma cortisol response. In contrast, totally isolated infants showed a significant elevation in plasma cortisol. In Exp II, these infants were separated for 3 days under 2 conditions: mother present and totally isolated. Results support and extend the findings of Exp I, indicating that age was not a factor in modulating response to separation. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Risk factors in infant-mother attachment.

In Exp I, 56 preterm Ss born at less than 1,500 g were assessed at 6 wks; at 3, 6, and 9 mo; and at 1 yr for avoidant, secure, and ambivalent attachment patterns. In Exp II, 109 Ss (aged 2–4.5 yrs) with delayed development due to Down's syndrome, diagnosed neurological disorders, and undiagnosed disorders were assessed in a strange-situation setting. In Exp III, 15 Ss with cystic fibrosis and 15 normal Ss (aged 12–18 mo) were assessed for attachment patterns. Data indicate that none of the medical problems had a significant impact on the child–mother relationship. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental changes in infants' visual response to temporal frequency.

Investigated the development of visual responsiveness to variations in temporal frequency in 6 studies that were conducted when infants were at 4 and 6 mo of age. Groups of 12 infants each were tested in each study. In the 1st 2 studies, Ss viewed pairs of identical check patterns flashing at 2, 4, and 8 Hz, and their visual preferences were observed. When rate covaried with duty cycle (overall intensity), both age groups exhibited differential fixation as a function of frequency. To find out whether intensity variations were responsible for these results, intensity variations were eliminated (by equating duty cycle at 50%), and only frequency was varied. This manipulation resulted in the elimination of the previously observed differential response in the 4-mo-olds but had no effect on the 6-mo-olds' differential response. As a final check on the role of intensity, overall intensity was varied while temporal frequency was kept constant. Results show that 4-mo-old Ss continued to respond differentially whereas 6-mo-olds did not. These data show that at 4 mo of age Ss attended to the overall intensity of stimulation and ignored its temporal characteristics, whereas at 6 mo of age they no longer attended to the overall intensity and instead attended to temporal frequency per se. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Retarded object permanence development in methylmercury exposed Macaca fascicularis infants.

Mothers of 12 full-term, normal birth-weight Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) received methylmercury (MeHg) hydroxide orally in apple juice at 50 μg/kg/day for 4 mo to 2 yrs before conception and at individual doses during pregnancy. Mothers of 12 control infants received apple juice without MeHg. Infants were separated from their mothers on delivery and were laboratory reared. Beginning at 14 days of age, infants were tested for object permanence development using a plain reach task and hiding tasks. Results indicate that the performance of the MeHg-exposed infants on the full hiding task was significantly retarded compared with controls. On average, exposed infants required nearly twice as many sessions and were over 1 mo older than control infants when they would retrieve the fully hidden object. Although not all of the MeHg-exposed infants who exhibited retarded object permanence development showed signs of attentional problems, it is suggested that for some infants, these attentional problems may be an early precursor to later cognitive deficits. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

étude comparative de nourrissons prématurés et nés à terme et des modes de stimulations qu'ils expérimentent au cours des six premiers mois.

Compared preterm and fullterm infants' temperament and development and to evaluate the physical and social stimulations they experience at 2, 4 and 6 months (correcting for prematurity). Fifty-six mother–infant dyads, including 28 premature and 28 fullterm infants, participated in the study. The groups did not differ on temperament and developmental measures, neither on physical environment (density, toys, accessories). However, significant differences were found regarding social stimulation. Mothers of preterm infants had less optimal sensibility-contingency scores and used more distal stimulation at 2 months than mothers of fullterm infants. During the first 6 months, premature infants spent more time in activities involving the immediate family, whereas fullterm infants went more frequently on outings. At home, fullterm infants interacted more with people from their social network. These stimulations could eventually have an impact on infant development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of early vocal behaviors and interactions in Down's syndrome and nonhandicapped infant–mother pairs.

Vocal interactions of 6 Down's syndrome (DS) and 7 nonhandicapped (NH) infant–mother pairs were recorded at weekly intervals over the 1st 6 mo of the infant's life. All the recordings were made during face-to-face interactions in the infants' homes. Two conditions were used, one with mothers behaving naturally (talking) and the other with mothers being quiet and holding their faces still (silent). The analysis for the talking condition showed quickly increasing overall vocal output by the NH Ss over the 1st 4 mo, followed by equally rapid decreases. These decreases were a manifestation of a quiescent stage in social vocalizations due primarily to Ss' more active listening to, and processing of, adult speech. This notion was also supported by the results for the silent condition. The vocal output of DS Ss was significantly lower during the 1st 3 mo but increased rapidly between the 4th and 6th mo; no decreases were indicated for NH Ss. Results, consistent with some studies on older DS babies, are discussed in terms of the possible effects of out-of-phase and excessive verbal stimulation. The possibility of changing the mothers' behavior toward greater reciprocity is also considered. (52 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)