Field dependence and the school achievement gap between Anglo-American and Mexican-American children.

Research supports the hypothesis that field dependence explains the poorer school achievement of Mexican-American children compared to Anglo-American children. To test that hypothesis, multiple regression and path analyses were used to interpret the relationships between culture, field dependence, and school achievement among 134 2nd-, 4th-, and 6th-grade Anglo-American and Mexican-American children. Results indicate that Mexican-Americans were significantly below Anglo-Americans in reading and math achievement, field independence was significantly correlated with both reading and math achievement, and Mexican-Americans were significantly more field dependent. Field dependence explains the cultural difference in math achievement but does not fully explain the cultural difference in reading achievement. Implications for understanding both field dependence and the nature of the observed cultural differences are discussed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of three field-dependence measures to the reading and math achievement of Anglo American and Mexican American children.

Previous studies relating field dependence to the superior academic achievement of Anglo-American children relative to Mexican-American children have relied exclusively on single-method approaches of measuring this cognitive style. The present study attempted to make a more comprehensive test of the relationship between field dependence and achievement by comparing members of both cultural groups on 3 commonly used measures of field dependence in order to determine the consistency of cross-cultural differences, intercorrelations, and predictive validity of these measures for Anglo-American and Mexican-American schoolchildren. 40 Mexican-American and 40 Anglo-American 1st–4th graders served as Ss and were administered the WISC Block Design subtest, the Children's Embedded Figures Test, and the portable rod-and-frame test. Results generally fail to support the assumptions that (a) Mexican-American children are more field dependent than Anglo-American children, (b) intercorrelations between the 3 field-dependence tests should be significant and comparable for members of both cultural groups, and (c) field dependence is of substantial importance to the school achievement of Anglo-American and Mexican-American children. The educational implications of the findings are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Apparent sex differences in cooperation–competition: A function of individualism.

Of the studies investigating sex differences among Anglo-American children, some have found boys more competitive than girls, whereas others have found the opposite or no differences. Analysis of previous cooperation–competition (C-C) studies, however, reveals that in many studies either the cooperative or the competitive alternative has been confounded with individualism (i.e., offers own-gain maximization) and that the sex differences in observed C-C vary systematically as a function of individualism. To test the hypothesis that sex differences in individualism can account for the apparently contradictory finding regarding sex differences in C-C, 80 3rd–5th graders (42 girls, 38 boys) made 24 choices on 4 choice cards that systematically varied with respect to individualism. As predicted, girls were more individualistic than boys and appeared more cooperative in situations in which individualism and cooperation were confounded, but girls were more competitive than boys when individualism and competition were confounded. Results point to the conclusion that the apparent contradictions found in studies of sex differences in C-C among children are due to the confounding effects of individualism. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of teachers' cognitive styles to pupils' academic achievement gains.

The relationship of teachers' cognitive styles (field dependence vs field independence) and their pupils' academic achievement gains was examined for 2nd and 5th graders. 432 children and 36 teachers were administered the Embedded Figures Test to measure cognitive style. Children and teachers with similar cognitive styles were considered matched, whereas children and teachers with different cognitive styles were considered mismatched. The children were administered the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills twice during a 1-yr period. Results indicate significant effects on gains due to teachers' cognitive styles, but there was no significant outcome associated with the matching variable or with grade level. Thus, children with field-independent teachers showed greater achievement gains than children with field-dependent teachers. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conflict resolution among field-independent and field-dependent Anglo-American and Mexican-American children and their mothers.

32 Anglo-American and Mexican-American boys and girls selected for their extreme field independence or dependence (Man-in-the Frame box, adapted from the rod-and-frame test) interacted with their mothers in 3 role plays designed to provoke conflict over issues of maternal authority and children's independence. The mother–child interactions were recorded, transcribed, and content analyzed. Anglo-American children more often than Mexican-American children entered and persisted in direct conflict with their mothers as indicated by a number of variables such as disagreement and justification of their own will. There was some tendency for Mexican-American mothers to ask fewer questions and to assert their own will more than Anglo-American mothers. Field independence among boys, but field dependence among girls, was associated with more assertive behaviors. Mothers of field-independent children used a somewhat more elaborate verbal code. The study supports hypothesized cultural differences in mother–child interaction patterns, but fails to support the presumed socialization antecedents of field dependence and the cross-sex generality of its correlates. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relation between popularity and achievement: A longitudinal test of the lateral transmission of value hypothesis.

Studied longitudinal data from 138 White, 44 Mexican-American, and 26 Black elementary school children involved in a school desegregation program to examine the relationship between normative social influence processes and academic achievement and to test theoretical models of how school desegregation produces benefit. Ss were measured once prior to and twice after desegregation of their schools. For all groups, analyses using structural equation techniques showed that, contrary to the lateral transmission of values hypothesis, which views social influence processes as shaping academic achievement, causal influence did not flow from social acceptance to academic achievement; rather achievement appeared to affect subsequent social acceptance. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of utilization of community primary health care and school health services by urban Mexican-American and Anglo elementary school children

The health care utilization of urban Mexican-American and Anglo elementary school children was recorded at school and community primary-care sites over a 1-year period. No significant differences were found between the two groups with respect to visiting/nonvisiting behavior or frequency of visits. Two unobtrusive measures were used to ascertain the degree of acculturation of the Mexican-American children and their parents: return of Spanish-language questionnaire and enrollment of the child in bilingual classes. No significant differences were found in the proportion of visitors/nonvisitors in each group or the total number of visits for health services among these children. Mexican-American and Anglo children did not differ in the type of health problems presented, except that fewer Mexican-American than Anglo children had visits for emotional, behavioral or learning problems. Results indicate that when health services are available and accessible, and when the barriers of language and income are minimized, Mexican-American and Anglo children do not differ in their use of health services in the community.     

Intrinsic intellectuality: Its relations to social class, intelligence, and achievement.

Distinguishes between orientation toward intellectual behavior that is motivated by ulterior purposes (e.g., grades, material success) and intellectuality for its own satisfaction. A scale was devised that excludes instrumental attitudes toward intellectual pursuits and measures intrinsic intellectual motivation (IIM). Data were obtained on 455 high school sophomores testing hypotheses that involve the relations between IIM, SES, need achievement, intelligence, and sex. Ss were administered a battery of tests that included the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule and Metropolitan Achievement Tests: High School Battery. Findings indicate a positive relationship between IIM and scholastic achievement, whereas need achievement showed no relationship. IIM was only moderately related to IQ and was weakly related to SES. No relationship was found between IIM and need achievement. When IQ was controlled, no relationship between IIM and SES appeared. Results show that IIM contributes significantly to academic achievement in addition to and independent of IQ. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Achievement attributions and self-instructions under competitive and individualistic goal structures.

Investigated whether competitive and individualistic goal structures elicit achievement cognitions that have been associated with helpless vs mastery-oriented children, respectively. 88 5th- and 6th-grade children were administered a novel achievement task in which a high vs low performance outcome was manipulated by varying the number of solvable puzzles across 2 sets of 6 puzzles, within either a competitive or individual goal structure. A "thought-matching" methodology was used to assess the type of frequency of Ss' thoughts. Results revealed that Ss made more ability attributions in the competitive than in the individual condition. In the individual condition, Ss displayed a mastery orientation in that they made more effort attributions and engaged in self-instructions and self-monitoring more than did Ss in the competitive condition. Ability attributions were predictive of Ss' positive and negative affective reactions. Results suggest that Ss were thinking about responses to the question "Was I smart?" in the competitive setting but were thinking about "How can I do this task?" in the individual setting. It is suggested that getting children to think about how to improve their performance may not be compatible with the focus of attention in competitive situations. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Joint use of adaptive behavior and IQ to predict achievement.

Determined the influence of IQ, adaptive behavior, SES, and race-ethnicity on reading and math achievement, using multiple linear regression analyses. Ss consisted of 345 children stratified on racial-ethnic characteristics (Anglo, Black, Mexican-American), SES (middle and low), gender, and age (CAs 7–14 yrs). Data were obtained from Ss' scores on the WISC-R, Adaptive Behavior Inventory for Children, and California Achievement Tests. The variance accounted for by the full model, consisting of the 4 previously mentioned variables, was highly significant for reading (.45) and math (.35). The amount of variance associated with race-ethnicity and SES was nonsignificant. It is concluded that adaptive behavior does not significantly predict achievement beyond that predicted by IQ. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mexican-American mothers' socialization strategies: effects of education, acculturation, and health locus of control

The present study examined maternal education, acculturation, and health locus of control beliefs in relation to parenting strategies that promote the internalization of healthy eating habits in Mexican-American children. Eighty low-income Mexican-American mothers and their 4- to 8-year-old children participated in the study. Mother-child interactions during dinner were observed, and mothers were interviewed about the socialization strategies they used to influence their children's food consumption. Results indicated that mothers with more external health locus of control beliefs were less likely to use socialization techniques associated with internalization. Acculturation was negatively related to the use of internalization techniques, with less traditional mothers using more directive strategies. Education did not predict maternal behavior after controlling for health locus of control beliefs.     

Advancing Achievement Goal Theory: Using Goal Structures and Goal Orientations to Predict Students' Motivation, Cognition, and Achievement.

The objective of this study was to investigate how different components of achievement goal theory were related to each other and to students' motivation, cognitive engagement, and achievement in mathematics. Junior high school students (N=525) completed a self-report survey that assessed their perceived classroom goal structures; personal goal orientations: and a collection of outcomes that included persistence, procrastination, choice, their use of cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies, and mathematics grade. Results indicate that mastery structure and mastery orientation were related to adaptive outcomes in all areas. The patterns of relations for performance-approach goal structure, and for performance-approach and performance-avoidance goal orientations were less uniform across outcomes. Implications for achievement goal theory and future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predictive validity of readiness tests for middle and lower socioeconomic status Anglo, Black, and Mexican American children.

Administered the Metropolitan Readiness Tests, Slosson Intelligence Test, Slosson Oral Reading Test, Clymer-Barrett Prereading Battery, and Language and Concepts subtests of the Tests of Basic Experiences to 411 Anglo, Black, and Mexican-American first-grade children from middle and lower socioeconomic status (SES) homes. Criterion variables consisted of measures of intelligence at 2nd grade and achievement at 2nd and 4th grades. 77% of the correlations were statistically significant for the total sample. However, important differences existed between the 3 racial-ethnic groups and 2 social classes. The readiness tests tended to be most valid for Anglos and least valid for Blacks. Within each racial-ethnic group, the tests tended to be more valid for middle than for lower SES Ss. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive development and cognitive style as factors in mathematics achievement.

Sought to provide a theoretical framework for the learning of mathematics from Piaget's theory about the development of the number concept and the theory of field dependence–independence advanced by H. A. Witkin et al (1977). The relationship between operativity on Piagetian tasks of number, classification, seriation, field dependence–independence, and mathematics achievement on concepts, computations, and applications was investigated, using 102 Ss from Grades 2–4. Results were analyzed separately within each grade for the total mathematics achievement test score, as well as for the 3 subtests consisting of mathematics concepts, computations, and applications. In all grades, field independence was related to high mathematics achievement, especially for the concepts and applications subtests. High operativity was related to high achievement in mathematics concepts only in Grade 2. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Academic underachievement, other-direction, and attitudes toward women's roles in bright adolescent females.

Studied achievement patterns and the relationship of other-direction and attitudes toward women to achievement in 43 10th-grade females with IQ scores above 110. Underachievers were Ss whose high school grade average was below the class mean. Achievement indices consisted of high school grades and scores on the Stanford Achievement Test and the Iowa Tests of Educational Development. Grade averages from Grades 2 through 10 were examined. Achievement patterns revealed a significant difference between the grades of achievers and underachievers beginning at Grade 6. Other-direction and attitudes toward women were significantly related to mathematical achievement test scores and high school grades. Results are discussed in relation to research in locus of control and factors contributing to adult underachievement in bright females. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Field independence, impulsiveness, high school training, and academic achievement.

Studied the interrelationships of field independence, impulsiveness, and type of previous high school education in 15 female and 45 male undergraduates. Relationships between these variables and several measures of academic achievement were also investigated. Ss were given 7 cognitive-perceptual tests and asked to complete a questionnaire measuring emotionality and impulsiveness. Results indicate that paper-and-pencil tests of field independence might partially measure different abilities among math- and art-trained Ss. Math-trained students were relatively field independent and low impulsive. Although field dependence and impulsiveness were unrelated measures, it appeared that highly anxious impulsive Ss were relatively field dependent. A negative correlation between impulsiveness and grades in statistics was found. Results support the view of H. A. Witkin et al that cognitive styles might have relevance in predicting academic evolution. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Academic consequences and longitudinal stability of behavioral subtypes of learning disabled children.

47 school-identified learning disabled (LD) students (aged 6 and 7 yrs at the beginning of the study) who had been classified into 6 behavioral subtypes by a technique of hierarchical cluster analysis were followed longitudinally for 3 yrs to determine their educational outcomes and examine the stability of subtype membership. Classroom and special-education teachers rated children each year on measures of independence–dependence, task orientation–distractibility, extraversion–introversion, and considerateness–hostility. Measures of reading and mathematics achievement were taken each year. Ss with attention problems and those who presented problem behaviors in the classroom during the 1st and 2nd grades showed poorer achievement outcomes in later grades, compared with those who did not present atypical behaviors and those who presented a withdrawn pattern of behavior. Although children tended to switch subtype membership over 3 yrs, the proportion of LD children in adaptive and maladaptive subtypes was similar at Years 1 and 3, as determined by classroom teachers' ratings in subsequent years. Developmental changes in subtype membership are discussed with respect to the effects of special-education services and the social-emotional sequelae that have been associated with school failure. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer victimization and academic achievement in a multiethnic sample: The role of perceived academic self-efficacy.

This study examines the link between perceived peer victimization and academic adjustment in an ethnically diverse sample of 1,895 Grade 6 students nested within 108 school classes. It was hypothesized that students' academic self-efficacy mediates the (negative) link between victimization experiences and academic achievement outcomes. Multilevel analyses were used to test this hypothesis and to explore whether there are differences between ethnic minority and majority group children. Results indicated that peer victimization was negatively associated with both relative class-based, and absolute test-based measures of academic achievement. These associations were similar across different school classes. As expected, the link between victimization and achievement was mediated by perceived academic self-efficacy, suggesting that victimized students did less well academically because they considered themselves to be less competent. The lower perceived self-efficacy of victimized children could be partly attributed to lower global self-esteem and depressed affect. Results were largely similar for ethnic minority and majority group children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exploring processes linking shyness and academic achievement in childhood.

The goal of the current study was to explore the relations between shyness, academic engagement, and academic achievement in childhood. Participants were (n = 125) children (aged 9–13 years) attending public school boards in Canada. Children completed self reports of shyness and were administered a test of nonverbal IQ. Academic achievement was assessed through both teacher ratings and standardized tests of reading comprehension and mathematics. As well, a new teacher-rated measure of academic engagement was created to assess student participation and on-task behavior in the classroom. Among the results, shyness was negatively related to teacher-rated achievement but not related to standardized test scores. Academic engagement was significantly and negatively related to shyness, and positively related to all measures of achievement. Finally, academic engagement partially mediated the relation between shyness and teacher ratings of achievement. These findings suggest that poorer teacher-rated academic performance in shy children may be partially accounted for by a lack of academic engagement in the classroom. Future studies are needed to explore why shy children are less likely to be engaged in the classroom. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learned helplessness in children: A longitudinal study of depression, achievement, and explanatory style.

Assessed the depressive symptoms, life events, and explanatory styles of 168 8–11 yr olds 5 times over a 1-yr period to test the prediction that the maladaptive explanatory style would be associated with higher levels of depression, lower school achievement, and higher incidences of helpless behaviors in the classroom. Ss completed the Children's Depression Inventory, the Children's Attributional Style Questionnaire, and a life events questionnaire. Measures of school achievement (the California Achievement Tests) were obtained once during the year. Depressive symptoms and explanatory styles were found to be stable over the year. As predicted by the reformulated learned helplessness theory, explanatory style both correlated with concurrent levels of depression and school achievement and predicted later changes in depression during the year. Depression also predicted later explanatory styles. Implications for intervention with children with depressive symptoms or school achievement problems are discussed. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)