Effects of dominance and sex on leader selection in dyadic work groups.

E. I. Megargee (1969) found that high-dominant females, as assessed by the California Personality Inventory Dominance scale, did not assert leadership over low-dominant males. In the present study, 378 undergraduates were paired into dyads with 1 high- and 1 low-dominant S. In the no-feedback condition, Ss received no feedback concerning task competence. In the feedback condition, the Ss who did not usually emerge as leader in Megargee's study were given feedback that they had performed better than did their partner on a pretest. Megargee's results were replicated in the no-feedback condition except in the high-dominant female/low-dominant male group, where significantly more females became leader than in Megargee's study. Feedback of better performance increased the S's likelihood of being leader. Feedback of poorer performance reduced the S's initial desire to be leader, but feedback of better performance did not affect the initial preferences. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of leadership style on content and work styles of short-term therapy groups.

Exposed 92 patients in a short-term psychiatric facility to 20 group sessions under 2 leadership conditions: cognitive and experiential. Cognitive leaders encouraged discussion of topics, goals, and purposes of hospitalization, while experiential leaders focused on expression of feelings and thoughts and on immediate (in-group) interpersonal relationships. 2 judges using the Hill Interaction Matrix rating device independently scored each session according to the content and work styles of the therapy groups. Interrater reliabilities ranged from .78-.95 for the 4 quadrants of the instrument. Groups in the experiential condition were significantly more member and work centered than groups in the cognitive condition. Results support the implication that an experiential leadership style possesses greater potential for member-related discussion (content) and member-centered interaction (work). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactive effects of sex and status on self-disclosure.

Rated the degree of self-disclosure of 40 male and 40 female undergraduates in interviews with either male or female interviewers of high or low status. A 2 * 2 * 2 analysis of variance revealed that (a) males disclosed more to females, while females disclosed more to males; (b) dyads containing a female resulted in more disclosure than all male dyads; (c) males revealed more to high-status interviewers, while females disclosed more to low-status interviewers; and (d) high- as opposed to low-status male interviewers elicited more disclosure from all Ss, while status of female interviewers resulted in no significant differences. The need for use of multiple measures in self-disclosure research and implications for client-therapist matching is noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive style and political ideology.

Employed a systematic coding technique to assess the integrative complexity of policy statements of 45 US Senators who, on the basis of their 1975 and 1976 voting records, had been classified as liberal, moderate, or conservative. Two hypotheses were tested. One hypothesis, derived from research on the authoritarian personality and conservatism, was that Ss who consistently voted for conservative ideological causes would be more prone to rely on simple (good vs bad) evaluative rules in interpreting policy issues than liberal or moderate Ss. The 2nd was that Ss who voted in ideologically consistent patterns (regardless of the liberal or conservative content of the ideology) would be more prone to rely on simple evaluative rules in interpreting issues than Ss who voted in less consistent patterns (moderates). 20 paragraph-sized statements were sampled from the speeches of each S; all material was coded for integrative complexity. Results indicate that conservative Ss made significantly less complex statements than their liberal or moderate colleagues. This finding remained significant after controlling for political party affiliation, education, years of service in the Senate, and age. Alternative interpretations of the data are examined. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive style and teacher-student compatibility.

Studied the effects of cognitive style matching in 32 teacher–student pairs. Tests of 2 cognitive style dimensions—serialism/holism and field dependence/independence—were administered to 54 final-year trainee mathematics teachers and 58 1st-yr psychology students. (Measures were the Group Embedded Figures Test and the Grandlemuller Test). From these, 32 teacher–student pairs were formed so that teachers and students were matched or mismatched on one or both cognitive style dimensions, in conformity with a 2–4 experimental design. Teachers structured and taught to their partners a 30–40 min lesson on the mathematical concept of network tracing. Students were then independently examined. Matching effects were obtained on objective test performance and on teachers' and students' subjective ratings of each other at the extremes of the field dependence–independence dimension. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive style differences in children's spatial perspective taking.

Examined spatial perspective taking in a total of 80 4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-yr-old reflective and impulsive children (as indentified by scores on the Matching Familiar Figures Test) using a modification of Piaget's 3 mountain task. Results indicate that reflectives made more mature errors at 6 yrs of age and were more accurate in predicting another's perspective at 8 yrs of age, but they did not differ from impulsives in performance at 4 or 10 yrs of age. Results suggest that the development and expression of children's cognitive structures, at least in the spatial realm, is mediated by cognitive style factors. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of sex composition on cohesiveness and interpersonal learning in short-term personal growth groups.

108 undergraduates were divided into 6 all-male 6-person groups, 6 all-female 6-person groups, and 6 mixed-sex 6-person groups that convened for 5 hrs, during which time Ss completed 5 exercises designed to promote group cohesiveness, personal exploration, and interpersonal learning. Ss completed a group cohesiveness and a projected group learning scale and self-report measures rating Ss' enjoyment of the exercise, value and usefulness of the exercise for them, and their own level of participation in the exercise. Observational ratings were made on the groups for 5 variables, including task orientation, group mood, group interaction, self-disclosure, and exercise length. Findings indicate that members of the all-female and mixed sex-groups rated themselves significantly higher on cohesiveness than did members of the all-male groups. The mixed-sex groups also rated themselves as participating more and their groups as being more valuable and useful than did the all-male groups. The all-male and the mixed-sex groups were rated as significantly more task oriented than the all-female groups; however, the all-female groups were rated as having a significantly brighter mood than the all-male groups. Results suggest that sexually heterogeneous groups possess significant advantages for both sexes over all-male or all-female groups. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting voice behavior in work groups.

This field study of 441 full-time employees in 95 work groups examined voice behavior (constructive challenge to the status quo with the intent of improving the situation rather than merely criticizing) as a function of person-centered (satisfaction with the work group, global self-esteem) and situational factors (group size, self-managed vs. traditional style of management). Using a measure of voice with demonstrated construct validity, the study showed that these person and situation factors explained 10% of the variance in peer-rated voice assessed 6 mo later. Significant Person?×?Situation interactions suggested that individuals with low global self-esteem or high satisfaction with their group were more responsive to the situational factors than individuals with high global self-esteem or low satisfaction. The authors discuss the importance of including person-centered characteristics, situational factors, and their interactions as predictors of voice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer evaluation in self-managing work groups.

A series of 3 experiments with business students examined how a rater's relative performance affects peer ratings. In Study 1, with 36 groups consisting of 178 Ss, outstanding contributors were the most discriminating evaluators. In Study 2, with 39 groups consisting of 186 Ss, individuals rated their own performance as well as that of their peers. Once again, outstanding contributors were the most discriminating evaluators, and self-evaluations were higher than the respective ratings received from peers. In Study 3, with 12 groups consisting of 61 Ss, below-average and average contributors may have discounted their individual performance outcomes by making allowances for external factors that affected their contributions. Together, these studies indicate that self–other comparisons in a work group influence peer-performance evaluations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive self-control strategies with the anxious student.

Discusses the differences in anxiety problems of university students from classic phobias in the variety of antecedent stimuli and the nature and prevalence of cognitive activity. Due to such differences and to the value students place on self-control, cognitive strategies are useful in anxiety management training. The importance of determining the variety of situations that produce anxiety and the extent to which ruminations are involved is stressed. The goals of cognitive anxiety management training are for the client to learn to identify early signals of anxiety, to analyze his/her own cognitive activity, and to refocus attention away from anxiety-producing thoughts. Roleplaying, covert rehearsal, and homework assignments involving the techniques are cited as potential aids in reshaping cognitive responses to uncomfortable situations. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive style in two modalities: Vision and audition.

Administered the visual Matching Familiar Figures Sequential Presentation Task (MFF-SPT) and the Auditory Impulsivity Task (AIT), 2 match-to-sample tasks designed to measure cognitive style, to 81 4th graders. A moderate negative correlation was found between errors and latencies on the AIT, thus indicating that longer latency did not always result in better performance. A high negative correlation was found on the MFF-SPT. 55% of the Ss maintained their classification as reflective, impulsive, fast–accurate, or slow–inaccurate across the 2 modalities, providing evidence that the 2 tasks were measuring somewhat different abilities. Ss employed the same search strategy in both modalities. It is suggested that auditory cognitive style be investigated for relationships with reading ability. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive and social functioning across adulthood: Age or student status differences?

20 younger adult students (aged 19–24 yrs), 21 older adult students (aged 61–76 yrs), and 22 older adult nonstudents (aged 62–76 yrs) were assessed for health (self-ratings of physical and mental health), social functioning (self-ratings of physical and mental activity, perceived role activity level, perceived roles, locus of control, and age–norm expectations), and cognitive functioning (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised [WAIS—R] Vocabulary and Block Design, and paired associate memory). Age differences were observed in self-ratings of health, social roles, intellectual performance, and memory. No student status differences were observed. Results are discussed in terms of plasticity of intellectual function and characteristics of student status in later adulthood. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A typology of university student living groups.

Subjected 100 university living groups measured on 10 dimensions of their social environments to cluster analysis to develop an empirically based taxonomy of university living groups. 5 distinctive clusters of living groups were identified: competition oriented, supportive achievement oriented, independence oriented, relationship oriented, and traditionally socially oriented. Clusters showed systematic differences in sex composition (i.e., male, female, and coed), size, and institutional affiliation. Some evidence that different clusters of living groups had different impacts on Ss was presented. It is concluded that an empirically derived taxonomy of the social environments of university living groups is a necessary step in understanding which types of living group programs produce optimal outcomes for various types of students. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evidence of mood linkage in work groups.

Two studies investigated whether people's moods are influenced by the collective mood of their work teammates over time. In the first study, 65 community nurses in 13 teams recorded their moods and hassles daily for 3 weeks. A pooled time-series analysis showed a significant association between the nurses' moods and the collective mood of their teammates, which did not depend on shared hassles. The association was greater for nurses who were older, were more committed to their team, perceived a better team climate, or experienced fewer hassles with teammates. In Study 2, a team of 9 accountants rated their own moods and the moods of their teammates 3 times a day for 4 weeks using pocket computers. The accountants' moods and their judgments of their teammates' moods were significantly associated with the collective mood of their teammates. The findings suggest that people's mood at work can become linked to the mood of their teammates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Taking the reins: The effects of new leader status and leadership style on team performance.

New leaders face a challenging task when they take charge of their teams. They have to determine how best to guide the work process, and they must understand how their behaviors will affect the members of their team. This research examines how a newly assigned team leader's status moderates subordinates' reactions to different leadership styles to affect assessments of the leader's self-confidence and effectiveness, and how this impacts team performance. Across 2 experimental studies, results demonstrate that low-status leaders are rated as more effective when they use a directive style, whereas high-status leaders are viewed as more effective when they use a participative style, and this relationship is mediated by perceptions of self-confidence. In addition, teams whose leaders are viewed more favorably perform better on a complex group task. These findings imply that low-status individuals are able to enhance their level of personal power by drawing on whatever positional power they hold, whereas high-status individuals are better off relying solely on their personal power to influence others. This research also provides a clear demonstration that assessments of new leaders' behaviors are subject to an appraisal that is clouded by observers' status perceptions and attributions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teacher and student behavior in high- and low-ability groups.

Examined differences in the behavior of 20 teachers and 219 students in high- and low-ability groups within heterogeneous kindergarten and 1st-grade classrooms. Students in the highest and lowest reading groups in each of 19 classrooms were observed for 90 min; codes for instructional setting, teacher behavior, and child behavior were recorded sequentially and continuously in 10-sec blocks. Interviews with teachers showed that they assigned students to groups primarily on the basis of informal observations of the child's ability and teacher-made tests and that teachers believed there were clear differences in the behavioral characteristics and academic needs of "typical" high- and low-group students. Observations revealed that (a) high-group students were more often doing individual work, whereas low-group students were more often instructed as a group; (b) teachers used more drill, more error correction, more control statements, and more positive reinforcement with low-group students; (c) low-group students received more direct instruction from teachers; and (d) low-group students were more disruptive and more often off-task than high-group students. It is concluded that the instructional setting and techniques teachers used with low-ability students were well-suited to the intellectual and behavioral characteristics of these students. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive development and cognitive style as factors in mathematics achievement.

Sought to provide a theoretical framework for the learning of mathematics from Piaget's theory about the development of the number concept and the theory of field dependence–independence advanced by H. A. Witkin et al (1977). The relationship between operativity on Piagetian tasks of number, classification, seriation, field dependence–independence, and mathematics achievement on concepts, computations, and applications was investigated, using 102 Ss from Grades 2–4. Results were analyzed separately within each grade for the total mathematics achievement test score, as well as for the 3 subtests consisting of mathematics concepts, computations, and applications. In all grades, field independence was related to high mathematics achievement, especially for the concepts and applications subtests. High operativity was related to high achievement in mathematics concepts only in Grade 2. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of speech style and sex of speaker on person perception.

R. T. Lakoff (1975) has suggested that men and women use different speech styles, with women's speech more polite but less assertive than men's. The assumption that 3 of Lakoff's linguistic variables (tag questions, qualifiers, and compound requests) affect person perception in these ways was tested. Sex of speaker was also varied. In Exp I, 80 undergraduates rated the assertiveness, warmth, and politeness of 2 male and 2 female speakers who used or did not use the 3 linguistic forms. All 3 "female" linguistic forms were rated less assertive than corresponding "male" forms; qualified speech and compound requests were rated warmer and compound requests more polite. Sex of speaker was a significant factor in only one possible comparison. These results were substantially replicated in Exp II, in which older and/or less educated women (32 18–58 yr olds) acted as judges. Findings suggest that Lakoff's intuitions concerning effects of speech styles on person perception are largely correct and that modification of speech styles could allow men and women to affect how they are perceived. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Halo effects in grading student projects.

Halo effects in rating specific pieces of work, as in educational grading, have received little attention. Grades awarded by 2 independent graders to undergraduate projects were analyzed with a correlated uniqueness model. Grades showed substantial halo despite being awarded by expert assessors at the time of reading the work. There was greater halo between different grades applying to the same section of the project than between grades applying to different sections. Supervisors who had regular contact with the student whose work they were grading showed no more halo than other graders. More reliable graders showed less within-section halo than graders of lower reliability but equal between-sections halo. The halo effects observed cannot be entirely attributable to a unitary general impression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)