Consumer awareness of salt and sodium reduction and sodium labeling

Reduction of dietary sodium by reduction of sodium in foods is a current industry target. Quantitative information on consumer knowledge of sodium and reduction of dietary sodium is limited. The objectives of this study were to characterize consumer knowledge and awareness of sodium and salt reduction in foods. Consumers (n= 489) participated in a quantitative internet survey designed to gather knowledge and attitudes towards dietary sodium, sodium in foods, and health. Eating habits and food consumption characteristics, knowledge of salt and sodium, and interest in health and wellness were probed. Saltiness believe and sodium knowledge indices were calculated based on correct responses to salt levels in food products. Kano analysis was conducted to determine the role of nutrition labels and satisfaction/dissatisfaction of foods. Consumers were aware of the presence of sodium in "salty" foods, and that sodium was part of salt. People who had a family history of certain diseases associated with a higher intake of dietary sodium did not necessarily have more knowledge of the relationship between sodium intake and a specific disease compared to consumers with no family history. Sodium content on the food label panel did not influence consumer dissatisfaction; however, sodium content did not necessarily increase consumer product satisfaction either. The addition of a healthy nutrient (that is, whole grain, fiber) into a current food product was appealing to consumers. For nutrient labeling, a "reduced" claim was more appealing to consumers than a "free" claim for "unhealthy" nutrients such as fat, sodium, and sugar. Practical Application: This study demonstrated the current state of consumer knowledge on sodium and salt reduction, and consumer perception of the relationship between diets high in sodium and many chronic diseases. Information that may contribute to consumer satisfaction on nutrition panel labeling was also determined.     

食盐对肉制品品质形成的作用及减盐技术研究进展

食盐在改善肉制品的风味、质地及延长保质期等方面发挥着重要作用,是目前肉品加工过程中最广泛使用的添加剂之一。但盐分摄入过多会增加多种疾病的发病率,如胃癌、骨质疏松症、肾病、糖尿病和心脑血管疾病等。因此,合理减少食盐的摄入量并采用适当的减盐技术在肉制品加工领域至关重要。本文综述食盐对肉制品品质的影响,重点总结生产低盐肉制品的常规减盐方法（直接降低食盐的添加量、改变食盐的物理形态、应用食盐替代物、添加风味增强剂或品质改良剂等）和新型加工工艺（超声波技术、超高压技术、脉冲电场技术和微粉化技术等）,为提高低盐肉制品品质及低盐肉制品的加工提供理论参考。     

Temporal Sodium Release Related to Gel Microstructural Properties—Implications for Sodium Reduction

The microstructure of food can be engineered to enhance sodium release during mastication, which may be used as a strategy to reduce sodium content in foods. This study aimed to relate sodium release to microstructural properties of solid lipoproteic colloid (SLC) foods. The SLC gels with 1.5% (w/w) NaCl were prepared by homogenization of whey protein isolate and anhydrous milk fat, followed by heat‐induced gelation. The gels varied in protein content (8% or 16%), fat content (0%, 11%, 22%, or 33%), and homogenization pressures (14 or 55 MPa). The maximum rate of sodium release during the initial gel compression increased with increasing gel porosity and pore size. This was due to more releasable serum in the gels with larger pore volume and larger pores. The maximum concentration of sodium at the end of sodium release increased with reduced size of the fat particles in the gels. The smaller fat particles were dispersed more uniformly and interrupted the protein network more, and facilitated the gel breakdown. The above findings suggested that, during the breakdown of the SLC gels, the major mechanisms of sodium release are via serum release followed by sodium diffusion, which are governed by the gel porosity and the particle size of fat, respectively. This study demonstrated the dependence of temporal sodium release properties on the microstructural properties of an SLC food system. The findings from this study could lay the foundation for further investigation of the dependence of saltiness perception on SLC microstructure, which can provide insight for sodium reduction in SLC products.     

Characterization of Sodium Mobility and Binding by 23Na NMR Spectroscopy in a Model Lipoproteic Emulsion Gel for Sodium Reduction

The effects of formulation and processing parameters on sodium availability in a model lipid/protein‐based emulsion gel were studied for purposes of sodium reduction. Heat‐set model gels were prepared with varying levels of protein, lipid, and NaCl contents and high pressure homogenization treatments. Single quantum and double quantum‐filtered ²³Na NMR spectroscopy experiments were used to characterize sodium mobility, structural order around “bound” (restricted mobility) sodium, and sodium binding, which have been correlated to saltiness perception in food systems previously. Total sodium mobility was lower in gels with higher protein or fat content, and was not affected by changes in homogenization pressure. The gels with increased protein, fat, or homogenization pressure had increased structure surrounding “bound” sodium and more relative “bound” sodium due to increased interfacial protein interactions. The data obtained in this study provide information on factors affecting sodium availability, which can be applied towards sodium reduction in lipid/protein‐based foods.     

降低肉制品中氯化钠含量研究进展

从健康的观点来看,过度的摄入肉制品特别是传统的干腌肉制品不被推荐。因为这些肉制品钠含量较高,过度的摄入可能使人们导致高血压等心血管疾病。本文综述了氯化钠在肉产品加过过程中的作用、降低盐含量的方法以及他们对肉制品加工过程中品质的影响。为探索减低我国传统肉质品盐含量提供参考,有效提高肉制品的健康性。     

低盐对发酵肉制品品质形成影响及减盐手段研究进展

食盐是发酵肉制品加工过程中不可或缺的腌制材料,具有提供咸味、抑菌、提高加工及品质特性等作用。为了抑制发酵过程中致病菌和腐败菌生长,保证产品安全性,发酵肉制品常需高含量盐分。但摄入过多的食盐会对人体健康产生负面影响,因此,降低发酵肉制品中食盐的添加量势在必行。本文简单介绍了食盐在发酵肉制品中的作用及其对微生物的影响,论述了低盐处理对肌肉蛋白和脂质水解、氧化作用以及品质形成的影响,最后综述了常用的减盐手段,以期为发酵肉制品减盐研究提供理论依据。     

Effect of Food Matrix on Saltiness Perception—Implications for Sodium Reduction

Enhancing sodium release from the food matrix, thus increasing saltiness perception, is a promising strategy to reduce the amount of salt needed in foods. However, the complex nature of the effect of the food matrix on saltiness perception makes it difficult to control saltiness perception when designing food products. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the food matrix effects on saltiness perception of sodium chloride. The effects are discussed in the order of 3 stages in saltiness perception: release of sodium from food matrix into oral cavity (1st stage), delivery of sodium within oral cavity (2nd stage), and detection of sodium by the taste receptor cells (TRCs) (3rd stage). In the 1st stage, the food matrix affects the initial availability of sodium to be released, and also affects the spontaneous and facilitated migration of sodium from the matrix into the oral cavity. In the 2nd stage, the food matrix affects the availability of sodium and the mixing efficiency of sodium with saliva. The relationship between food matrix and oral processing of food that may affect the sodium release (1st stage) and the delivery (2nd stage) is also discussed. In the 3rd stage, the food matrix affects the physical availability of sodium for the TRCs, the physiological activity of TRCs, and the central activities involved in the perception process. Based on the understanding of complex nature of the matrix effects on saltiness perception discussed in this review, the properties of food matrix may be controlled effectively to enhance saltiness perception and achieve sodium reduction.     

Sodium Reduction in Bread: A Role for Glasswort (Salicornia ramosissima J. Woods)

Excessive dietary sodium (salt) intake is a primary cause of high blood pressure and, consequently, a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. The World Health Organization wants to reduce the current sodium mean intake of approximately 4 g/d by half. Bread is commonly consumed and a major source of sodium. Therefore, reducing sodium content in bread would bring important economic and public health benefits. Thus, the goal of this paper is to provide an overview of the role of salt in bread manufacturing, summarize already tested reduction strategies, and explore glasswort (Salicornia ramosissima J. Woods) as a salt substitute. Some alternatives to the sodium additives often used in the bread‐making process are also suggested. For this, an extensive literature review was carried out. Overall, salt reduction in bread, while maintaining product quality, is difficult to accomplish due to its multifunctional role in the bread‐making process. Several strategies have been tried so far, with only partial success. Consequently, the use of glasswort (S. ramosissima J. Woods) as salt substitute shows great potential. However, other research is still needed to safely implement it in the baking industry. On the other hand, the reduction of salt alone is not the complete answer, and the replacement of sodium‐based additives also needs to be considered to effectively lower sodium consumption.     

Use of Consumer Acceptability as a Tool to Determine the Level of Sodium Reduction: A Case Study on Beef Soup Substituted With Potassium Chloride and Soy‐Sauce Odor

In this study, consumer acceptability was considered as a tool of reducing sodium rather than just using it as a final examination of the successfulness of the substitution. This study consisted of 4 experimental steps. First, by gradually reducing the concentrations of NaCl, consumer rejection threshold (CRT) of NaCl in beef soup was examined. Then, the amount of KCl that can increase preference was examined in 2 low sodium beef soups, with sodium concentrations slightly above or below the CRT. Relative saltiness of various KCl and NaCl/KCl mixtures were also measured. Finally, consumers evaluated acceptability and intensities of sensory characteristics for 9 beef soup samples that differed with respect to NaCl content and/or KCl content with/without addition of salty‐congruent odor (soy‐sauce odor). The results showed that in the “above CRT” system, consumer acceptability as well as sensory profile of low sodium beef soup substituted using KCl had similar profile to the control although saltiness was not fully recovered, whereas in the “below CRT” system, consumer acceptability was not recovered using KCl solely as a substitute. Potential of using salty‐congruent odor as a final touch to induce salty taste was observed; however, the results inferred the importance of having almost no artificialness in the odor and having harmony with the final product when using it as a strategy to substitute sodium. Overall, the results of the study implied the importance of considering consumer acceptability when approaching sodium reduction to better understand the potentials of the sodium substitutes and salty‐congruent odor.     

The Growing Role of Front-of-Pack Nutrition Profile Labeling: A Consumer Perspective on Key Issues and Controversies

Nutrition-related diseases, such as some cancers, heart diseases, and obesity, belong to the most challenging health concerns of our time. Communicating intuitive and simple nutrition information by means of front-of-pack (FOP) nutrition profile signpost labeling is increasingly seen as an essential tool in efforts to combat unhealthy food choices and improve public health. Consequently, much attention in policy and research is given to nutrient profiling methods and the determination of optimal nutrition criteria. Although consumer research on nutrition signpost labeling is now gradually appearing in the literature, the value and meaning of these labeling systems for consumers have received less attention. In the current debate a concise overview is lacking of the consumer perspective, including relevant psychological phenomena, in relation to much debated controversies surrounding these labels and their further development, such as the most effective type of signpost labeling system and varying stakeholder interests. Therefore, this paper aims to critically review the literature in the consumer domain of FOP nutrition labeling in order to illustrate the strengths and weaknesses of this form of nutrition education from a consumer perspective.     

Sodium chloride – sensory,preserving and technological impact on yeast‐leavened products

Dietary sodium reduction is an important risk factor in the development of hypertension. As salted, yeast‐leavened products are a major source of dietary sodium, the baking industry needs to explore ways to reduce sodium in its products. Therefore, the impact of NaCl on shelf life, rheology and technological attributes as well as on the sensory quality of yeast‐leavened products needs to be understood. This review offers essential background knowledge about the effects of NaCl reduction on dough and yeast‐leavened products as well as techniques for reduction. Further, this review suggests paths of future research, including the overall impact of various NaCl levels on dough rheology and end product quality (yeast‐leavening rate, crumb texture, staling rate and retrogradation) and a global, detailed consideration of the effect of a comprehensive range of NaCl on the main flour components (starch and protein).     

Sodium Trends in Selected U.S. Total Diet Study Foods, 2003-2011

ObjectiveCharacterize trends in sodium concentrations in the general categories of foods analyzed in the U.S. FDA Total Diet Study (TDS) program from 2003 through 2011. Methods: Trends were assessed for sodium concentrations in a small convenience sample of TDS foods from 2003 to 2011 using simple linear regression with the SAS regression procedure, focusing on sodium concentrations in foods in USDA's sentinel food categories. Results: Levels of sodium in various TDS foods varied over time. Overall, 75 TDS foods did not have statistically significant linear changes in sodium content during that time, and 23 TDS foods did. Certain sentinel foods such as ramen-style noodles showed gradually increasing sodium content from 2003 through 2011. Significance: Over three quarters of foods show no statistically significant linear changes over time. Although a number of selected foods had a statistically significant decline, a limitation to this study is that specific brands of TDS foods were not necessarily the same for each period. The results suggest that some sodium reduction has been occurring in some foods and supports the idea that commercially viable reductions are possible. Such reductions in the sodium content of foods could have large public health implications—rates of hypertension and related health consequences would likely decline—thus saving thousands of lives and billions of dollars each year.     

Salt Reduction in Vegetable Fermentation: Reality or Desire?

NaCl is a widely used chemical in food processing which affects sensory characteristics and safety; in fact, its presence is frequently essential for the proper preservation of the products. Because the intake of high contents of sodium is linked to adverse effects on human health, consumers demand foods with low-sodium content. A 1st step to reduce the use of salt would imply the proper application of this compound, reducing its levels to those technologically necessary. In addition, different chloride salts have been evaluated as replacers for NaCl, but KCl, CaCl₂, and ZnCl₂ show the most promising perspectives of use. However, prior to any food reformulation, there is a need for exhaustive research before its application at industrial level. Salt reduction may lead to an increased risk in the survival/ growth of pathogens and may also alter food flavor and cause economic losses. This review deals with the technological, microbiological, sensorial, and health aspects of the potential low-salt and salt-substituted vegetable products and how this important segment of the food industry is responding to consumer demand.     

Consumer Acceptance of Model Soup System with Varying Levels of Herbs and Salt

Although herbs have been reported as one of the most common saltiness enhancers, few studies have focused on the effect of herbs on reducing added sodium as well as the impact of herbs on consumers’ overall liking of foods. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to determine the effect of varying levels of herbs on reducing added sodium and consumers’ overall liking of soups and identify the impact of salt levels on consumers’ overall liking of soups. Overall liking of freshly prepared and retorted canned soups with varying levels of herbs was evaluated before and after adding salt by consumers ad libitum until the saltiness of the soup was just about right for them. The results of the study demonstrated that when the perceived herb flavor increased, the amount of salt consumers added to fresh soups decreased (P ≤ 0.006); however, consumers’ overall liking decreased (P ≤ 0.013) as well for the highest level of herb tested in the study. Although overall liking of all canned soups was not significantly decreased by herbs, the amount of salt consumers added was also not significantly decreased when herbs were used. Overall liking of all soups significantly increased after more salt was added (P ≤ 0.001), which indicates that salt level was a dominant factor in affecting consumers' overall liking of soups with varying levels of herbs. These findings imply the role of herbs in decreasing salt intake, and the adequate amount of herbs to be added in soup systems.     

Sodium reduction in foods: Challenges and strategies for technical solutions

In many parts of the world, sodium consumption is higher than recommended levels, representing one of the most important food-related health challenges and leading to considerable economical costs for society. Therefore, there is a need to find technical solutions for sodium reduction that can be implemented by food producers and within food services. The aims of this review are to discuss the barriers related to sodium reduction and to highlight a variety of technical solutions. The barriers relate to consumer perception, microbiology, processing, and physicochemistry. Existing technical solutions include inhomogeneous salt distribution, coated salt particles, changing particle sizes and forms, surface coating, multisensory combinations, sodium replacements, double emulsions, adapted serum release by microstructure design, and adapted brittleness by microstructure design. These solutions, their implementation and the associated challenges, and applicable product categories are described. Some of these solutions are ready for use or are in their early development stages. Many solutions are promising, but in most cases, some form of adaptation or optimization is needed before application in specific products, and care must always be taken to ensure food safety. For instance, further research and innovation are required in the dynamic evolution of saltiness perception, consumer acceptance, the binding and migration of sodium, juiciness, microbiological safety, and the timing of salt addition during processing. Once implemented, these solutions will undoubtedly support food producers and food services in reducing sodium content and extend the application of the solutions to different foods.     

我国餐饮食品营养标识现状及影响因素

餐厅菜单标示热量和其他营养信息是一种有效预防肥胖的措施，在创新食品环境和促进健康饮食方面发挥着重要作用。我国餐饮食品营养标识尚未普遍开展，其主要影响因素有推行力度不足、经营者意愿不强、基础数据不完善以及技术能力不足，本文期望为推进餐饮食品营养标识提供理论依据。