Spatially resolved X-ray diffraction mapping of phase transformations in the heat-affected zone of carbon-manganese steel arc welds

Phase transformations that occur in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of gas tungsten arc welds in AISI 1005 carbon-manganese steel were investigated using spatially resolved X-ray diffraction (SRXRD) at the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory. In situ SRXRD experiments were performed to probe the phases present in the HAZ during welding of cylindrical steel bars. These real-time observations of the phases present in the HAZ were used to construct a phase transformation map that identifies five principal phase regions between the liquid weld pool and the unaffected base metal: (1) α-ferrite that is undergoing annealing, recrystallization, and/or grain growth at subcritical temperatures, (2) partially transformed α-ferrite co-existing with γ-austenite at intercritical temperatures, (3) single-phase γ-austenite at austenitizing temperatures, (4) δ-ferrite at temperatures near the liquidus temperature, and (5) back transformed α-ferrite co-existing with residual austenite at subcritical temperatures behind the weld. The SRXRD experimental results were combined with a heat flow model of the weld to investigate transformation kinetics under both positive and negative temperature gradients in the HAZ. Results show that the transformation from ferrite to austenite on heating requires 3 seconds and 158°C of superheat to attain completion under a heating rate of 102°C/s. The reverse transformation from austenite to ferrite on cooling was shown to require 3.3 seconds at a cooling rate of 45 °C/s to transform the majority of the austenite back to ferrite; however, some residual austenite was observed in the microstructure as far as 17 mm behind the weld.     

Weldability and toughness assessment of Ti-microalloyed offshore steel

The present study has been carried out to investigate the coarse-grained heat-affected zone (CGHAZ) microstructure and crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) toughness of grade StE 355 Ti-microalloyed offshore steels. Three parent plates (40-mm thick) were studied, two of which had Ti microalloying with either Nb + V or Nb also present. As a third steel, conventional StE 355 steel without Ti addition was welded for comparison purposes. Multipass tandem submerged arc weld (SAW) and manual metal arc weld (SMAW) welds were produced. Different heat-affected zone (HAZ) microstructures were simulated to ascertain the detrimental effect of welding on toughness. All HAZ microstructures were examined using optical and electron microscopy. It can be concluded that Ti addition with appropriate steel processing, which disperses fine TiN precipitates uniformly, with a fine balance of other microalloying elements and with a Ti/N weight ratio of about 2.2, is beneficial for HAZ properties of StE 355 grade steel.     

An Investigation of the Massive Transformation from Ferrite to Austenite in Laser-Welded Mo-Bearing Stainless Steels

A series of 31 Mo-bearing stainless steel compositions with Mo contents ranging from 0 to 10 wt pct and exhibiting primary δ-ferrite solidification were analyzed over a range of laser welding conditions to evaluate the effect of composition and cooling rate on the solid-state transformation to γ-austenite. Alloys exhibiting this microstructural development sequence are of particular interest to the welding community because of their reduced susceptibility to solidification cracking and the potential reduction of microsegregation (which can affect corrosion resistance), all while harnessing the high toughness of γ-austenite. Alloys were created using the arc button melting process, and laser welds were prepared on each alloy at constant power and travel speeds ranging from 4.2 to 42 mm/s. The cooling rates of these processes were estimated to range from 10 K (°C)/s for arc buttons to 10⁵ K (°C)/s for the fastest laser welds. No shift in solidification mode from primary δ-ferrite to primary γ-austenite was observed in the range of compositions or welding conditions studied. Metastable microstructural features were observed in many laser weld fusion zones, as well as a massive transformation from δ-ferrite to γ-austenite. Evidence of epitaxial massive growth without nucleation was also found when intercellular γ-austenite was already present from a solidification reaction. The resulting single-phase γ-austenite in both cases exhibited a homogenous distribution of Mo, Cr, Ni, and Fe at nominal levels.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of a welded (α + β) ti alloy

The microstructure and the mechanical properties were studied in bead-on-plate welds in a Ti-6Al-2V-1Mo alloy. The heat affected zone (HAZ) and the fusion zone (FZ) consisted of very large primaryβ grains with theβ-phase transformed to martensite. A special bead-on-plate welding technique allowed independent measurement of the mechanical properties of the HAZ and the FZ. Compared to the as-received (AR) material, the strength and ductility decreased in the weld. The highest fatigue strength was found for the AR material followed by the HAZ and the FZ, whereas the ranking for fatigue crack growth was opposite.     

Comparative Study on Processing Property Between CWW CO2 Gas Shielded Welding and SAW

 Cable welding wire (CWW) CO2 gas shielded welding is an innovative process arc welding with high efficiency, high quality and low consumption, in which cable wire is used as consumable electrode. CWW CO2 gas shielded welding and submerged arc welding (SAW) are used for contrast studies on processing property of high strength steel A36 used in ship structure. The results show that the shapes of weld seam, using CWW CO2 gas shielded welding and SAW, are good and no weld defect such as air hole, flaw, slag inclusion, incomplete fusion, lack of penetration and so on are found in the weld seam. Because the rotating of arc during CWW CO2 gas shielded welding process has a strong stirring effect on molten pool, the grain in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the joints, using CWW CO2 gas shielded welding, is small. Tensile failure positions of joints by CWW CO2 gas shielded welding and SAW are all in the base metal, but tensile strength of CWW CO2 gas shielded welding joint is higher than that of SAW joint by an average of 2. 3%. The average impact energy of HAZ, using CWW CO2 gas shielded welding and SAW, is almost equal, but the average impact energy of the weld seam using CWW CO2 gas shielded welding is increased by 6%, and the average impact energy of the fusion line is increased by 7%. The 180° bending tests for the joints of CWW CO2 gas shielded welding and SAW are all qualified, and the joints hardness is all less than HV 355, but hardness of CWW CO2 gas shielded welding wire welding joint near the fusion line is obviously lower. It can be concluded that the properties of CWW CO2 gas shielded welding are better than those of the SAW joint, and CWW CO2 gas shielded welding is suitable for welding high strength steel A36 used in ship structure.     

Weldability of Low Carbon Transformation Induced Plasticity Steel

Transformation induced plasticity （TRIP） steel exhibited high or rather high carbon equivalent （CE） because of its chemical composition, which was a particularly detrimental factor affecting weldability of steels. Thus the weldability of a TRIP steel （grade 600） containing （in mass percent, %） 0.11C-1. 19Si-1.67Mn was extensively studied. The mechanical properties and impact toughness of butt joint, the welding crack susceptibility of weld and heat affected zone （HAZ） for tee joint, control thermal severity （CTS） of the welded joint, and Y shape 60° butt joint were measured after the gas metal arc welding （GMAW） test. The tensile strength of the weld was higher than 700 MPa. Both in the fusion zone （FZ） and HAZ for butt joint, the impact toughness was much higher than 27 J, either at room temperature or at -20 ℃, indicating good low temperature impact ductility of the weld of TRIP 600 steel. In addition, welding crack susceptibility tests revealed that weldments were free of surface crack and other imperfection. All experimental results of this steel showed fairly good weldability. For application, the crossmember in automobile made of this steel exhibited excellent weldability, and fatigue and durability tests were also accomplished for crossmember assembly.     

SS400超细晶粒钢及其焊接接头的疲劳裂纹扩展速率

SS400钢是一种细晶强化的新一代钢铁材料．焊接对其疲劳性能的影响是人们关注的问题。笔者参照美国材料试验学会标准ASTME647—83的规定．采用紧凑拉伸CT试件对SS400钢及其焊接接头CT试件的疲劳裂纹扩展速率进行了测试。发现：母材的疲劳裂纹扩展存在两个不同速率的阶段,焊缝及热影响区的疲劳裂纹扩展速率均低于母材;热影响区的疲劳裂纹扩展速率介于焊缝与母材之间;焊接接头组织和性能的变化并未导致SS400钢疲劳性能的降低。     

Laser Welding of Ultra-Fine Grained Steel SS400

Steeliswidelyusedbecauseofitsgoodcompre hensive properties ,plentyofresourceandlowerprice .Thestrengthandtoughnessaretwoimpor tantpropertiesofsteels ,andpeoplemakeeffortstoincreasetheirvalues .Addingalloyingelementandcontrollingmicrostructurearetwobasicwaystoac complishtheaim .Therefinedmicrostructureob tainedbyprocessingtechniqueenablesthestrengthandtoughnessofsteeltobeincreasedwithoutaddingalloyingelementandtheratioofperformance costtobeincreased .Theultra finegrainedsteelshavefer ritegrains…     

Welding-Induced Microstructure Evolution of a Cu-Bearing High-Strength Blast-Resistant Steel

A new high strength, high toughness steel containing Cu for precipitation strengthening was recently developed for naval, blast-resistant structural applications. This steel, known as BlastAlloy160 (BA-160), is of nominal composition Fe-0.05C-3.65Cu-6.5Ni-1.84Cr-0.6Mo-0.1V (wt pct). The evident solidification substructure of an autogenous gas tungsten arc (GTA) weld suggested fcc austenite as the primary solidification phase. The heat-affected zone (HAZ) hardness ranged from a minimum of 353 HV in the coarse-grained HAZ (CGHAZ) to a maximum of 448 HV in the intercritical HAZ (ICHAZ). After postweld heat treatment (PWHT) of the spot weld, hardness increases were observed in the fusion zone (FZ), CGHAZ, and fine-grained HAZ (FGHAZ) regions. Phase transformation and metallographic analyses of simulated single-pass HAZ regions revealed lath martensite to be the only austenitic transformation product in the HAZ. Single-pass HAZ simulations revealed a similar hardness profile for low heat-input (LHI) and high heat-input (HHI) conditions, with higher hardness values being measured for the LHI samples. The measured hardness values were in good agreement with those from the GTA weld. Single-pass HAZ regions exhibited higher Charpy V-notch impact toughness than the BM at both test temperatures of 293 K and 223 K (20 °C and –50 °C). Hardness increases were observed for multipass HAZ simulations employing an initial CGHAZ simulation.     

Heat transfer during Nd: Yag pulsed laser welding and its effect on solidification structure of austenitic stainless steels

Theoretical and experimental investigations were carried out to determine the effect of process parameters on weld metal microstructures of austenitic stainless steels during pulsed laser welding. Laser welds made on four austenitic stainless steels at different power levels and scanning speeds were considered. A transient heat transfer model that takes into account fluid flow in the weld pool was employed to simulate thermal cycles and cooling rates experienced by the material under various welding conditions. The weld metal thermal cycles and cooling rates are related to features of the solidification structure. For the conditions investigated, the observed fusion zone structure ranged from duplex austenite (γ)+ferrite (δ) to fully austenitic or fully ferritic. Unlike welding with a continuous wave laser, pulsed laser welding results in thermal cycling from multiple melting and solidification cycles in the fusion zone, causing significant post-solidification solid-state transformation to occur. There was microstructural evidence of significant recrystallization in the fusion zone structure that can be explained on the basis of the thermal cycles. The present investigation clearly demonstrated the potential of the computational model to provide detailed information regarding the heat transfer conditions experienced during welding.     

Three-dimensional transient model for arc welding process

A direct computer simulation technique, discrete element analysis (DEA), was utilized in the development of a transient multidimensional (2-D and 3-D) mathematical model for investi-gating coupled conduction and convection heat transfer problems associated with stationary and moving arc welding processes. The mathematical formulation considers buoyancy, electro-magnetic, and surface tension driving forces in the solution of the overall heat transfer conditions in the specimen. Furthermore, the formulation of the model allows realistic consideration of the geometrical variations in the workpiece. The model treats the -weld pool surface as a truly deformable free surface, allowing for the prediction of the weld surface deformations such as the “weld crown.≓ A marked element formulation was employed to monitor the transient de-velopment of the weld pool as determined by the latent heat considerations and the calculated velocities in the weld pool. The model was utilized to simulate the heat and fluid flows in the weld pool that occur during stationary (spot) and moving (linear) gas tungsten-arc welding. Also, the present analysis considers a simple rectangular specimen and a geometrically complex specimen to demonstrate the capability of the model to simulate realistic 3-D arc welding prob-lems. The results of the present investigation clearly demonstrate the significant influence of the heat and fluid flows and the specimen geometry on the development of the weld. Comparison of the predicted and the experimentally observed fusion zone and heat-affected zone (HAZ) geometries indicate good agreement.     

Microstructure and Low-Cycle Fatigue of a Friction-Stir-Welded 6061 Aluminum Alloy

Strain-controlled low-cycle fatigue (LCF) tests and microstructural evaluation were performed on a friction-stir-welded 6061Al-T651 alloy with varying welding parameters. Friction stir welding (FSW) resulted in fine recrystallized grains with uniformly distributed dispersoids and dissolution of primary strengthening precipitates β″ in the nugget zone (NZ). Two low-hardness zones (LHZs) appeared in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) adjacent to the border between the thermomechanically-affected zone (TMAZ) and HAZ, with the width decreasing with increasing welding speed. No obvious effect of the rotational rate on the LHZs was observed. Cyclic hardening of the friction-stir-welded joints was appreciably stronger than that of base metal (BM), and it also exhibited a two-stage character where cyclic hardening of the friction-stir-welded 6061Al-T651 alloy at higher strain amplitudes was initially stronger followed by an almost linear increase of cyclic stress amplitudes on the semilog scale. Fatigue life, cyclic yield strength, cyclic strain hardening exponent, and cyclic strength coefficient all increased with increasing welding speed, but were nearly independent of the rotational rate. Most friction-stir-welded joints failed along the LHZs and exhibited a shear fracture mode. Fatigue crack initiation was observed to occur from the specimen surface, and crack propagation was mainly characterized by the characteristic fatigue striations. Some distinctive tiremark patterns arising from the interaction between the hard dispersoids/inclusions and the relatively soft matrix in the LHZ under cyclic loading were observed to be present in-between the fatigue striations.     

Effect of Multipasses on Microstructure and Electrochemical Behavior of Weldments

Shielded metal arc welding was applied to AISI 1045 medium carbon steel. The microstructural changes and electrochemical corrosion behavior of the heat-affected zone (HAZ), base metal (BM), and weld zone (WZ) were investigated. The effect of welding passes on microstructural changes of BM, HAZ, and WZ were elucidated using optical microscopy, potentiodynamic Tafel scan, and linear polarization resistance (LPR) methods in plain water and 3.5 pct (w/v) NaCl solution under standard temperature and pressure using corrosion kinetic parameters. From microstructural observations, the variations in ferrite morphology in the BM and WZ showed dissimilar electrochemical corrosion behavior and a corrosion rate than that of HAZ.     

Fracture behaviours of fracture toughness testing specimens with metallurgical heterogeneity along crack front

Safe use of welded structures is dependent on fracture mechanics properties of welded joints. In present research, high strength low alloyed HSLA steel in a quenched and tempered condition, corresponding to the grade HT 80, was used. The fluxo cored arc welding process (FCAW), with CO₂ as shielding gas, was used and two different tubular wires were selected. The aim of this paper is to analyse fracture behaviour of undermatched welded joints, and also to determine relevant parameters which contribute to higher critical values of fracture toughness. Towards this end three differently undermatched welded joints were analysed using results of testing the composite notched specimens with through thickness crack front positioned partly in the weld metal, partly in heat affected zone (HAZ) and partly in base material (BM).The presence of different microstructures along the pre‐crack fatigue front has an important effect on the critical crack tip opening displacement (CTOD). This value is the relevant parameter for safe service of welded structure. In the case of specimens with through thickness notch partly in the weld metal, partly in the heat affected zone and partly in the base material, i.e. using the composite notched specimen, fracture behaviour strongly depends on a partition of ductile base material, size and distribution of mismatching factor along vicinity of crack front. If local brittle zones occur in the process zone, ductile base metal can not prevent pop‐in instability, but it can reduce it to an insignificant level while the fracture toughness parameter is higher and the weakest link concept can not be applied.     

Effects of welding and weld heat-affected zone simulation on the microstructure and mechanical behavior of a 2195 aluminum-lithium alloy

The microstructures, tensile properties, and fatigue properties of a 2195-T8 Al-Li alloy subjected to a weld heat-affected zone (HAZ) simulation and gas-tungsten-arc (GTA) welding using a 4043 filler metal, with and without a postweld heat treatment, were studied. The principal strengthening precipitate in the T8 base alloy was the T ₁ (Al₂CuLi) phase. The HAZ simulation resulted in the dissolution of T ₁ precipitates and the formation of T _B(Al₇Cu₄Li) phase, Guinier-Preston (G–P) zones, and δ′ (Al₃Li) particles. When the HAZ simulation was conducted at the highest temperature of 600 °C, microcracks and voids also formed along the grain boundaries (GBs). In the specimens welded with the 4043 alloy, T (AlLiSi) phase was found to form in the fusion zone (FZ). An elongated T _Bphase and microcracks were observed to occur along the GBs in the HAZ close to the FZ interface. The T ₁ phase was not observed in the HAZ. The postweld heat treatment resulted in the spheroidization of primary T phase and the precipitation of small secondary T particles in the FZ, the dissolution of T _B phase, and the reprecipitation of the T ₁ phase in the HAZ. Both the HAZ simulation and welding gave rise to a considerable decrease in the hardness, tensile properties, and fatigue strength. The hardness in the FZ was lower than that in the HAZ. Although the postweld heat treatment improved both the hardness and tensile properties due to the reprecipitation of T ₁ phase in the HAZ and a smaller interparticle spacing in the FZ, no increase in the fatigue strength was observed because of the presence of microcracks in the HAZ.     

Structure-property correlation of submerged-arc and gas-metal-arc weldments in HY-100 steel

Structure-property relationships of two HY-100 steel weldments prepared by submerged arc (SAW) and gas metal arc (GMAW) welding processes using identical heat input (2.2 kJ mm^-1) have been studied. It has been found that submerged arc welded (SAW) HY-100 steel weldments have a lower weld toughness than welds produced by the gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process. Optical, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy were used in conjunction with microhardness traverses to characterize and compare the various microconstituents that are present in the last weld pass of both weldments. TEM examination revealed the presence of coarse upper bainite, B-II bainite, and carbides in a highly dislocated ferrite matrix as well as in ferrite laths in the SAW weldment, while the GMAW weldment exhibited a typical fine low carbon lath martensite, autotempered martensite, and mixed B-II and B-III bainites which occasionally contained small regions of twinned martensite. The measured cooling rate in the SAW was found to be about 40 pct slower than that in GMAW. It was also found in the SAW that the weld metal inclusion number density was about 25 pct greater than that in GMAW. Micro-hardness traverses exhibited significantly lower hardness (about 50 HV) in the SAW weldment compared with GMAW, but the tempered weld metal microhardness in both the weldments was measured about the same, at 250 HV. The ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) of both weldments was determined by Charpy impact test. Based on an average energy criterion, the DBTT of the SAW weldment was 323 K (50 °C) higher than that of the GMAW weldment. This difference in fracture resistance is due to the different weld metal microstructures. The different microstructures most probably result from differences in cooling rate subsequent to welding; however, the SAW weld also has a higher inclusion number density which could promote a higher transformation temperature for the austenite.     

Microstructure and Fatigue Properties of a Friction Stir Lap Welded Magnesium Alloy

Friction stir welding (FSW), being an enabling solid-state joining technology, can be suitably applied for the assembly of lightweight magnesium (Mg) alloys. In this investigation, friction stir lap welded (FSLWed) joints of AZ31B-H24 Mg alloy were characterized in terms of the welding defects, microstructure, hardness, and fatigue properties at various combinations of tool rotational rates and welding speeds. It was observed that the hardness decreased from the base metal (BM) to the stir zone (SZ) across the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ). The lowest value of hardness appeared in the SZ. With increasing tool rotational rate or decreasing welding speed, the average hardness in the SZ decreased owing to increasing grain size, and a Hall–Petch-type relationship was established. Fatigue fracture of the lap welds always occurred at the interface between the SZ and TMAZ on the advancing side where a larger hooking defect was present (in comparison with the retreating side). The welding parameters had a significant influence on the hook height and the subsequent fatigue life. A relatively “cold” weld, conducted at a rotational rate of 1000 rpm and welding speed of 20 mm/s, gave rise to almost complete elimination of the hooking defect, thus considerably (over two orders of magnitude) improving the fatigue life. Fatigue crack propagation was basically characterized by the formation of fatigue striations concomitantly with secondary cracks.     

In-situ phase mapping and direct observations of phase transformations during arc welding of 1045 steel

In-situ spatially resolved X-ray diffraction (SRXRD) experiments were performed during gas tung-sten arc (GTA) welding of AISI 1045 C-Mn steel. Ferrite (α) and austenite (γ) phases were identified and quantified in the weld heat-affected zone (HAZ) from the real time SRXRD data. The results were compiled with weld temperatures calculated using a coupled thermal fluids model to create a phase map of the HAZ. Kinetics of the α → γ transformation during weld heating and the reverse γ → α transformation during weld cooling were extracted from the map. Superheating as high as 250 °C above the A3 temperature was observed for the α → γ phase transformation to reach completion at locations near the fusion zone (FZ) boundary. The SRXRD experiments revealed that the newly created γ phase exists with two distinct lattice parameters, resulting from the inhomogeneous distribution of carbon and manganese in the starting pearlitic/ferritic microstructure. During cooling, the reverse γ → α phase transformation was shown to depend on the HAZ location. In the fine-grained region of the HAZ, the γ → α transformation begins near the A3 temperature and ends near the A1 temperature. In this region, where the cooling rates are below 40 °C/s, the transformation occurs by nucleation and growth of pearlite. In the coarse-grained region of the HAZ, the γ → α transformation requires 200 °C of undercooling for completion. This high degree of undercooling is caused by the large grains coupled with cooling rates in excess of 50 °C/s that result in a bainitic transformation mechanism.