Microstructure of Frankfurters Extended with Wheat Germ Proteins

Transmission electron microscopy was utilized to study the microsctructure of frankfurters extended with wheat germ protein flour (WGPF) at 3.5, 5.0, and 7.0%. Samples with 3.5% WGPF showed a denser matrix than the control. They also had a uniform interfacial protein film (IPF) with a slight increase in average thickness. At WGPF >3.5%, no further effects on IPF were observed. At 7.0% WGPF, an increase in added water, and the resultant dilution of meat and fat components, resulted in fewer fat globules, some with incomplete IPFs. Proteins in the WGPF contributed to IPF formation up to a specific level. Nonprotein components also were important in batter stability by absorbing water.     

Quality of Broiled Beef Patties Supplemented with Wheat Germ Protein Flour

Quality characteristics of ground beef patties, supplemented with hydrated wheat germ protein flour (WGPF) at levels 2.0, 3.5, and 5.0% were studied. Water-holding capacity decreased and pH increased with addition of WGPF. Water activity was not affected. Supplemented beef patties had lower cooking losses and changes in diameter and higher yields than control patties. Supplemented beef patties exhibited lower shear force and compression values than all-meat patties. No differences were found in wheat-like aroma and flavor. WGPF has potential for use as an extender in ground meat products.     

Functionality of Wheat Germ Protein in Comminuted Meat Products as Compared with Corn Germ and Soy Proteins

Wheat germ protein flour (WGPF), corn germ protein flour (CGPF), and soy flour (SF) were used as additives at a level of 3.5% in comminuted meat products (CMP). Frankfurters with protein additives showed increased water-holding capacity and batter stability and decreased cooking loss. Improved viscosity and adhesiveness were observed with protein additives when the level of added water was constant. Protein additives also influenced textural and sensory properties of frankfurters. WGPF at a level of 3.5% was found similar to effects of SF and CGPF. WGPF is a potential nonmeat protein additive that can be utilized as an extender in CMP such as frankfurters and bologna.     

FUNCTIONALITY OF MILK PROTEINS AND CORN GERM PROTEIN FLOUR IN COMMINUTED MEAT PRODUCTS1

Effects of corn germ protein flour (CGPF), nonfat dry milk (NFDM), whey protein concentrate (WPC), and sodium caseinate (SC) on quality characteristics of comminuted meat products were studied. Water holding capacity (WHC) was lowest and cooking loss was highest for the control formulation, whereas formulations extended with CGPF and milk proteins were higher in WHC and lower in cooking losses. Shear force and firmness increased as extenders were added, except WPC. All frankfurters with extenders were firmer than the control, except those extended with WPC. Hue angle was highest for samples with CGPF, while no differences were found in hue angle between control and milk proteins containing samples, except samples with WPC. Frankfurters with CGPF and SC add had a stronger atypical aroma than the control. Meaty aroma score was higher for the control than for the other products, except those with WPC. Meaty flavor score was higher for the control than for all other products. The product with CGPF added had a stronger atypical flavor than the control. Frankfurters containing extenders were not as juicy as the all-meat control.     

Textural and Physicochemical Properties of Low-Fat, Precooked Ground Beef Patties Containing Carrageenan and Sodium Alginate

Textural and physicochemical characteristics of selected hydrocolloids incorporated into low-fat, precooked, beef patties were investigated. Patties with an alginate/carrageenan combination had higher yields and percent moisture but lower shear force values than those of alginate or carrageenan treatments within the same fat level. Alginate appeared to improve texture slightly more than carrageenan, but carrageenan tended to release more free water after cooking and reheating. Patties with 10% fat were generally lower in shear value, cooking yield and percentage free water released as compared to their 5% fat counterparts with the same added ingredient. Low-fat, precooked, ground beef patties containing alginate/carrageenan combinations were comparable to regular beef patties (20% fat control) regarding yields and textural properties.     

THERMO-RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES AND COOKING YIELD OF SAUSAGE-TYPE PRODUCTS AS AFFECTED BY LEVELS OF FAT AND ADDED-WATER1

Consumer interest in low fat foods has led meat processors to introduce low fat sausages with high added-water. The purpose of this study was to use dynamic thermo-rheological techniques to study the influence of fat and added water on sausage batters and cooking yields during heating. Twenty different sausage batters were formulated to 15–30% fat and 18–35% added water. Batters were heated in a thermal scanning rheometer from 20–80C in increments of IC/min. Rheograms of all batters showed a gradual decrease in storage modulus (G') as temperature increased from 20–59C. Significant changes in G' occurred in the range of 60–75C leading to the formation of rigid gel networks. Batters with levels of fat ≤ 24% and added water > 24% or levels of fat and added water ≥ 27% showed increased cooking yields. Rheological measurements suggested that levels of added water influenced the G' of batters during heating and that high levels of added water could be used in sausage formulations without adversely affecting product yield.     

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CORN GERM AND SOY PROTEINS UTILIZATION IN COMMINUTED MEAT PRODUCTS1

Soy flour (SF), soy concentrate (SC) and corn germ protein flour (CGPF) at 3.5%, or 2% of soy isolate (SI) were incorporated in the formulations of frankfurters. There was no significant differences in proximate composition of frankfurters containing SF, SC. SI, and CGPF. Frankfurters formulated with high plant protein flour had lower cholesterol, and higher protein content than the all-meat control frankfurters. Control frankfurters had lower water holding capacity and higher cooking losses than those containing plant proteins. No significant differences (P < 0.05) were found in textural and color characteristics. Atypical aroma and flavor profiles increased in frankfurters with SF nd CGPF extension.     

Low-fat, High-added Water Bologna: Effects of Massaging, Preblending, and Time of Addition of Water and Fat on Physical and Sensory Characteristics

The low-fat, high-added water bologna (10% fat-30% added water) had lower values for Instron TPA and tensile strength and higher values for cohesiveness, springiness, and cooking and purge losses than the control (30% fat-10% added water). Massaging of low-fat formulations tended to increase Instron TPA values compared with preblended or nonpreblended low-fat bologna. Low-fat products produced by massaging with all of the added water but none of the added fat had less purge during storage than low-fat treatments that were not massaged. However, none of the low-fat processing regimens produced bologna with sufficient water-binding capacity necessary to maintain cooking losses of less than 6% and purge accumulation less than 2%.     

Low-Fat, High-Moisture Frankfurters: Effects of Temperature and Water during Extended Mixing

Frankfurters containing 15% fat and 25% added water were produced using conventional practice or minced meat batters were mixed for 30 min (extended mixing, EM) at 2 or 16°C with all or 30% of the formulation water. EM had minimal effects on yield, purge, and texture. Products were darker and less yellow than non-EM frankfurters. The lower mixing temperature resulted in firmer (P < 0.05) frankfurters. However, mixing temperature did not affect other properties. Time of water addition affected most properties. Frankfurters from treatments mixed with 100% of formulation water were firmer, darker, redder, less yellow, and required more extension to fracture.     

PROCESSING CHARACTERISTICS AND YIELD OF PORK FRANKFURTERS MANUFACTURED FROM GILTS ADMINISTERED EXOGENOUS PORCINE SOMATOTROPIN

Eighteen gilts (75 kg) were injected daily with 0, 2.5, or 5 mg of porcine somatotropin (pST) for either 30 or 31 days prior to slaughter to examine the effects of dose of pST administration to swine on processing characteristics of frankfurters manufactured from pork. Frankfurters were manufactured from New York shoulders (NAMP #404) and formulated with fat from the same carcass to a final product target of 22% fat and 10% added water. Frankfurters from pST- treated gilts had lower smokehouse yields (0.9% decrease; P <.005) and greater shear force peak height (35.4% increase; P < 0.05) compared with the controls. The increased shear force required for skin failure of frankfurters manufactured from pork from pST-treated pigs was not readily explained by other differences due to treatment (e.g., cooking stability, batter proximate composition or salt soluble protein content; all P > 0.05)     

Physicochemical and sensory properties of healthier frankfurters as affected by walnut and fat content

This study evaluates the physicochemical and sensory properties of healthier frankfurters with 25% added walnut (WF) versus low-fat frankfurters (6% pork fat) (LF) and traditional frankfurters (18% pork fat) (NF). Results reveal that cooking losses were unaffected (p ? 0.05) by the formulation of frankfurters. The addition of walnut led to higher (p < 0.05) redness and yellowness values, while colour parameters did not differ significantly between LF and NF sausages. Frankfurters with added walnut (WF) presented higher (p < 0.05) hardness and chewiness values than LF and NF frankfurters. Differences in composition were also accompanied by changes in the microstructure of the gel/emulsions. Frankfurters with added walnut presented a flavour significantly different from meat and scored lower (p < 0.05) on texture preferences. However, all frankfurters scored the same for overall acceptability.     

Corn Germ Protein Flour as an Extender in Broiled Beef Patties

Beef patties were extended at levels of 10, 20, and 30% of the uncooked weight with hydrated defatted corn germ protein flour (CGPF). Extended patties had lower cooking losses and higher cooked yields than control patties. Adding CGPF did not affect moisture or fat contents in broiled patties, but lowered protein content. The amino acid composition of experimental patties was comparable to that of the control. The water-holding capacity and pH of raw patties increased with increasing levels of added CGPF. Incorporation of CGPF affected sensory characteristics of the product; meaty aroma and flavor of all-meat patties was significantly higher than experimental samples and decreased with an increase in added CGPF. CGPF has potential use as an extender in coarsely ground meats.     

Effects of fat reduction and fat replacer addition on some quality characteristics of frankfurter-type sausages

Some quality characteristics of frankfurters manufactured in three different fat levels (20%, 10% and 5%) and added citrus fibre (CF) and soy protein concentrate (SPC) were investigated. While moisture content of frankfurters increased with decreasing fat levels, protein contents increased. Lower fat levels resulted in lower water‐holding capacity (WHC), cooking losses and penetrometer values. Lower L* values and higher a* values were obtained in low fat frankfurters. SPC significantly increased the cooking losses in the sausages with 5% and 20% fat, but decreased in the sausages with 10% fat. The lower cooking loss values were obtained in sausages added CF for all fat levels. Addition of fat replacers decreased the L values but did not affect the a and b values. Addition of fat replacers increased hardness in case of low fat levels. The softer product was obtained with high‐fat formulation than low‐fat formulation. Lower taste scores were observed with addition of fat replacers.     

Calcium Fortified, Reduced Fat Beef Emulsion Product

Characteristics were investigated on a 15%/25%, fat/added water beef frankfurter supplemented with calcium (calcium carbonate or calcium-citrate-malate complex, CCM) to meet 25, 50, 75 or 100% of adult U.S. RDA in one 45g frankfurter. Controls contained 15%/25% or 30%/10% fat/added water. Compared to controls, calcium addition did not reduce yield although batters containing CCM had lower viscosity (P<0.05). During storage, pH of calcium added frankfurters increased about 0.35 units. Frankfurters formulated with 100% levels for calcium were least acceptable to sensory panelists. Frankfurters were softer and had less springiness and chewiness (P<0.05) when supplemented with 100% levels for calcium.     

Effect of varying salt and fat levels on the sensory and physiochemical quality of frankfurters

The sensory and physiochemical properties of frankfurters with varying fat and salt levels were investigated. Twenty frankfurter formulations were produced with varying concentrations of fat (10%, 15%, 20%, 25% w/w) and salt (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3% w/w). Frankfurters were assessed instrumentally for colour, moisture, fat, cooking loss and texture profile analysis. Consumers (n=25) evaluated each product in duplicate for colour, coarseness, tenderness, juiciness, salt taste, meat flavour, off-flavour and overall acceptability using a hedonic scale. Salt levels below 1.5% were shown to have a negative effect on consumer acceptability, with 2.5% salt concentration being the most accepted (P<0.001) by consumers. However, frankfurters containing the lower fat levels 10% and 15% fat with higher salt levels (2.5-3%) were significantly the most acceptable variants to consumers. Samples containing less fat and salt were found to be tougher, less juicy and had greater cooking losses. Thus salt perception is very important for consumer acceptability, but fat levels can be potentially reduced without significantly affecting overall acceptability.     

Improving low fat meatball characteristics by adding whey powder

In this study whey powder (WP) at levels of 0%, 2% and 4% was added to beef meatballs formulated with 5%, 10% and 20% fat levels. Raw and cooked meatballs were analyzed for protein, fat, moisture, ash and pH. Meatballs were evaluated for cooking characteristics, juiciness, colour parameters (L*,a*,b*) and sensory properties. Addition of WP did not affect fat and protein contents of meatballs. Addition of 2% or 4% WP significantly increased cooking yield regardless of the fat level. Both fat level and WP level significantly affected fat retention values of meatballs. Incorporating WP had no effect on meatball juiciness. Addition of WP increased fat and moisture retention of meatballs. Twenty percent fat resulted in higher L* and lower a* values. Adding WP resulted in higher L* values but WP had no effect on a* and b* values. WP had no detrimental effect on sensory properties.     

Physical and Sensory Characteristics of Low-Fat Fresh Pork Sausage Processed with Various Levels of Added Water

The acceptability of low-fat pork sausage, formulated by replacing fat with added water, was studied. Six sausage blends, consisting of three fat levels (15, 25 and 35%) and two levels of added water (3 and 13%) were stratified across two packaging treatments, chubpacks or mechanically formed patties. Increased amounts of added water in low-fat sausage resulted in cooking losses, color and textural characteristics similar to control sausage. Sensory panel ratings did not differ between sausage formulated to contain 35% fat (3% added water) and those containing 15% fat. Acceptable lower fat pork sausage may be produced with 15% fat if water is used for the replacement of fat.     

添加脂肪的种类和比例对炸鱼丸品质及N-亚硝胺含量的影响

为考察添加脂肪的种类和比例对炸鱼丸理化指标和N-亚硝胺含量的影响,本研究在鱼丸基础配方上,分别添加大豆油、猪背膘、鸡皮、猪背膘+鸡皮（质量比1∶1）,添加比例为10%和20%,加工出8组炸鱼丸样品。分析各组样品的加工损失率、持水性、凝胶强度、白度、TBARS值、亚硝酸盐残留量以及9种N-亚硝胺含量。结果表明:较低的油脂添加量（10%）,有利于降低鱼丸的加工损失率,提高持水性和凝胶强度,降低TBARS值和亚硝酸盐残留量。特别是添加10%猪背膘+鸡皮（D组）的炸鱼丸质构品质最好,持水性（79.90%±0.05%）和凝胶强度（3504±94 g·mm）显著高于其他组样品（p<0.05）,加工损失率（12.8%±0.2%）明显低于其他处理组。所有鱼丸样品均含有NPYR、NDPA、NDBA和NPIP,其中NPYR含量最高（p<0.05）。添加鸡皮的样品N-亚硝胺含量较高,添加10%大豆油和20%猪背膘的鱼丸,总N-亚硝胺含量较低,N-亚硝胺含量与脂肪添加量没有显著相关性。      

Quality of low-fat meatballs containing Legume flours as extenders

Meatballs were extended with blackeye bean flour (BBF), chickpea flour (CF), lentil flour (LF) and rusk (R) at level of 10%. Raw and cooked meatballs were analyzed for moisture, fat, protein and ash content. Cooking properties and colour parameters were evaluated. BBF and LF resulted in greater cooking yield, fat retention and moisture retention values. Meatballs extended with LF were lighter than other samples. Meatballs formulated with BBF had the lowest reduction in diameter. Meatballs with BBF and CF had higher water holding capacity (WHC) than other treatment groups. All meatballs incorporating legume flours were tougher (lower penetration values) than the R treatment. According to sensory evaluation results all meatball treatments had high acceptability and received high scores (6.8 and above). Meatballs with BBF and CF had lower TBA values than meatballs with LF and R at 3rd month of frozen storage at -18°C.     

Evaluation of a Food Processor for Making Model Meat Emulsions

Meat emulsions or batters made with a retail food processor were compared to batters produced by three commercial machines (silent cutter, Schnellkutter, and emulsifier) and two laboratory machines (small size cutter and blender) for suitability in laboratory studies. Batters were evaluated for post-heating fat losses and smokehouse water losses. Stabilities of the finished frankfurters were evaluated by severe cooking weight changes, penetration forces, fat droplet sizes, and sensory qualities. The food processor was comparable to the other machines for producing high quality batters and had the advantage of being inexpensive, economical with ingredients, and time-saving.