Relations between cavitation erosion resistance of materials and their fatigue strength under random loading

The paper contains results of tests on fatigue strength under uniaxial random loading and cavitation erosion resistance for three steels: 10HNAP, 18G2A and 15G2ANb. The obtained fatigue and cavitation characteristics were used for determination of relations between these two phenomena. From the analysis it appears that there is correlation between fatigue strength of the material under random loading and its cavitation erosion resistance. It has been shown that fatigue tests under random loading and tests on cavitation erosion of 10HNAP, 18G2A and 15G2ANb steels may be described with a mathematical model of the same type. It has been also found that there is a linear relation, in the dual logarithmic system, between cavitation erosion resistance of the steels tested and their fatigue strength under random tension—compression with zero mean value.     

Resistance of nanostructured titanium dioxide coatings to erosion corrosion

Abstract

Investigations were undertaken to determine the erosion corrosion resistance of nanostructured titanium dioxide coatings in 5 vol.-%–3·5 wt-% NaCl slurry at velocities ranging from 1 to 4 m s^–1 in a recirculating loop. Two types of nanopowders, spray dried and densified (AE 9342) and chemically precipitated and spray dried (AE 9303) were used. The results were compared with a conventional TiO₂ coated samples (SM 102). Specimen AE 9342 showed a higher resistance compared to AE 9303. No localised corrosion on the above specimen was observed. The erosion corrosion was caused by etching of intersplat boundaries. The erosion corrosion is dependent on surface topography. A homogeneous distribution of nanoagglomerates of unmelted, partially melted nanoparticles embedded in coatings, a large area of melted zone and porosity less than 1% enhances the erosion corrosion resistance of nanostructured titanium dioxide coatings.     

Influence of nitrocementation on the increase in fatigue strength and wear resistance of galvanic iron coatings

Recommendations are made regarding the choice of nitrocementation conditions in strengthening iron-plated parts, so as to increase their life. The influence of nitrocementation on the wear resistance and fatigue strength of galvanic iron coatings is studied experimentally.     

Experimental and numerical investigations on development of cavitation erosion pits on solid surface

Polished, grinded, and milled samples made of 40Cr stainless steel were prepared for the cavitation erosion experiment. A typical phenomenon of “pits chain”, which consisted of two contact pits and a smaller pit on the ridge between them, was found on the sample surfaces after 15-minute experiment. Numerical simulation indicated that the pressure fluctuation caused by the sequentially formed pits on the solid surface was the main reason for the formation of the “pits chain”. It proves that the early-formed pits affect the formation of the subsequent erosion pits, and the whole cavitation erosion process is not a probability event. Based on the numerical analyses, the development of erosion is divided into four stages, which describe how a pit develops vertically and horizontally under the effect of the pressure perturbation. The development was validated by the characteristics of the damaged surface observed at different experimental time.     

Corrosion fatigue of steel under cavitation erosion generated intermittently in 3% salt water (results of two-stage tests with and without cavitation erosion)

Two-stage fatigue tests with and without cavitation erosion were performed in 3% salt water. When corrosion fatigue with cavitation erosion (erosion fatigue) is changed to corrosion fatigue during a test, the fatigue life decreases remarkably and the total number of stress cycles to failure becomes smaller than that for tests involving erosion fatigue only. In the reverse case, when corrosion fatigue conditions are changed to erosion fatigue conditions, the fatigue life increases slightly compared with the life expected from the linear damage law (Miner's law). The variation in fatigue strength can be explained by the characteristics of crack propagation in each environment. From these results, it is presumed that the corrosion fatigue strength of the material exposed intermittently to cavitation erosion decreases remarkably.     

Radial fretting fatigue damage of surface coatings

Radial fretting tests with a 52100 steel ball-on-flat contact have been carried out under different normal loads. TiN, MoS₂ and TiN+MoS₂ coatings on a 1045 steel flat were examined. The normal loads amplitude used were 200, 400 and 800 N at speeds of 12 and 1.2 mm/min. Dynamic analysis in combination with microscopic examinations by SEM and EDX have been performed. It was observed that the vertical stiffness increased with the increase of loading speed and number of cycles. The metallographic examinations showed that little damage was observed for the MoS₂ coating, which exhibited excellent radial fretting fatigue resistance. For the TiN coating, micro-cracks appeared at the lower load while delamination occurred at the higher load. For the TiN+MoS₂ composite coating, the vertical stiffness increased but accompanied by some micro-cracks. As a result of the study, the radial fretting test is proposed as one possible new method to evaluate coating life.     

A comparison of liquid impact erosion and cavitation erosion

A comparison has been made between the response of several metals and alloys to multiple liquid jet impact and their response to ultrasonically induced cavitation. For the single-phase metals and alloys, namely aluminum, iron, Al-1%Cu, Al-1%Mg and Cu-30%Zn, the failure mechanism is the same for the two techniques. However, there are significant differences for Al-4%Cu and Al-9%Mg. The former alloy fails in cavitation by the growth of macroscopic fatigue-like striated pits, whereas under liquid impact the fracture appears more like transcrystalline cleavage. The differences in the Al-9%Mg alloy are even more dramatic: under cavitation the surface becomes covered with macroscopic striated pits, whereas under liquid impact failure is intercrystalline. Although the magnitude and duration of the pressure pulses produced by the two techniques are similar, all the materials studied required three to four orders of magnitude more impacts by avitation than by liquid impact for a given amount of erosion. The greater erosive power of the liquid impact is attributed to the shearing effects of lateral flow of the liquid after impact.     

The resistance of nickel and iron aluminides to cavitation erosion and abrasive wear

The abrasive wear and cavitation erosion resistance of several alloys based on the Intermetallic compounds Ni₃Al and Fe₃Al have been investigated. The erosion resistance of the nickel aluminides is relatively insensitive to alloying with iron or chromium and is comparable with or superior to that of many commercial erosion-resistant alloys; the abrasive wear resistance is found to be decreased by alloying, despite increased room temperature strength and refined grain size. Preliminary results for the iron aluminides indicate increased resistance to abrasive wear with increasing alloy content. It is suggested that the abrasive wear process causes temperature increases in the damage zone that are sufficient to cause the elevated temperature properties of the alloys to become dominant. Under these conditions, the wear resistance can be related to the tendency to disorder, either thermally or through plastic deformation.     

Influence of microstructure on erosion resistance of steels

Erosive wear due to solid particle impingement is a very intensive degradation process of surface layers of metallic materials. Erosion resistance is influenced by the working conditions (impact angle, impact velocity of solid particles, size, shape, hardness and amount of impinging particles) and the parameters of the worn material like hardness and microstructure. In our experiments some structural and tool steels were tested by slurry with SiO₂ particles at a flow velocity of 20 m/s. The microstructures of the tested steels were modified in a broad range by changing the conditions of their heat treatment. Increasing pearlite share in the structure of annealed carbon and low-alloyed steels has a positive effect on their erosion resistance. The growing carbon content in the tested hardened steels increases their erosion resistance. Maximum erosion resistance was found in hardened chromium ledeburite steel. Hardened high-speed steel HS 11-0-4 in spite of its high hardness has lower erosion resistance than ledeburitic chomium steels. An increasing amount of retained austenite and decreasing carbide and martensite shares with growing quenching temperature of the tested ledeburitic chromium steels leads to the reduction of their erosion resistance.     

Effects of applied stress on cavitation erosion

Cavitation erosion under static applied stress and/or alternating stress was studied using steel specimens which were set in close proximity to an oscillating horn in ion-exchanged water. For increasing static applied tensile or compressive stress, weight loss and its rate do not vary in a monotonic fashion but first decrease, then increase through a peak, and then decrease again. Tensile stress except for given stress regimes, and compressive stress at all stress levels, decreases erosion damage compared with zero-stress values. Under alternating stress, the weight loss rate varies with trends similar to those under static applied stress. However, the weight loss rate is larger than for the same static stress, so that the erosion damage is more affected by alternating stress than by static stress. The behaviors under applied stress are discussed through the effect of stress on the erosion particles.     

Influence of BN and B4C particulates on wear and corrosion resistance of electroplated nickel matrix composite coatings

Abstract

Electrodeposition of nickel–boron nitride–boron carbide (Ni–BN–B₄C) composites was carried out from a Watt's solution containing 50 and 10?g L of dispersed boron nitride and boron carbide particles respectively. The corrosion behaviour for both Ni and Ni–BN–B₄C deposits was evaluated by polarisation curves in a 3·5% NaCl solution at room temperature. Wear resistance of the composites was also studied using pin on disc technique. Scanning electron microscopy was extensively used to understand the effect of different electroplating conditions on the concentration and distribution of particles. The results showed that BN and B₄C particle concentration in the Ni–BN–B₄C composite film was sensitively dependent on the electroplating current density and bath temperature. Meanwhile, the Ni–BN–B₄C composite films were much more resistant to corrosion and wear than pure Ni coatings.     

Material and velocity effects on cavitation erosion pitting

Cavitation erosion during the incubation period was investigated via pitting tests conducted on three different materials: an Aluminum alloy, a Nickel Aluminum Bronze alloy and a Duplex Stainless Steel. Pitting tests were conducted in a cavitation tunnel in the velocity range 45–90 m/s at a constant cavitation number. The test section was made of a straight nozzle 16 mm in diameter discharged into the radial 2.5 mm space between two flat walls. Cavitation appears in the form of a toroidal cavity attached to the nozzle exit and damage on the samples facing the nozzle is concentrated in a circular ring centered in the cavity closure region. The exposure time was adjusted to avoid pit overlapping. The material surface was examined using a conventional contact profilometer which allowed us to identify the pits, count them, and measure their main characteristics such as depth, surface area, and volume. From these the pitting rate, the coverage rate, and the depth of deformation rate were defined. Pits were classified according to their diameter. For all materials and operating conditions, pitting rate appears to follow an exponential law in relation to the pit diameter. This law depends upon two parameters only, which were identified as the coverage time τ (i.e. the time required for the surface to be covered by erosion pits) and a characteristic pit diameter δ, which corresponds to the pits whose contribution to the coverage process is the highest. Scaling laws for pitting were derived accounting for both material properties and flow velocity, and a procedure to make pitting test results non-dimensional is proposed. The influence of the material on pitting test results was analyzed. It is shown that the damage is not correlated in simple terms with the elastic limit determined from conventional tensile tests and it is conjectured that other parameters such as the strain rate might play a significant role and should be included in the analysis. The effect of flow velocity on both parameters τ and δ was analyzed and a classical power law was found for the influence of the flow velocity on pitting rate for all three materials. Finally, some analysis and discussion is given concerning distributions of pit volume and pit depth.     

Inelastic damages by stress wave on steel surface at the incubation stage of vibration cavitation erosion

In cavitation erosion, stress waves will be generated and propagated in the solid when a collapse impingement is acted on it. The cavitation damages on the solid surface are considered to be under the effect of the stress waves. An ultrasonic vibration cavitation erosion experiment was performed on a polished steel specimen, and not only the plastic deformations but also the brittle fractures appeared on the surface at the incubation stage of cavitation erosion. Some characteristics such as the hemispherical shape of the crater, intergranular fractures and subsurface comminution make the damages distinguishable from the common plastics deformations, and they are thought to be the results of shear waves. Thus, stress waves are proved to take part in the cavitation erosion, and they bring some special damage styles depending on the conditions of the impaction and mechanical properties of the specimen.     

Influence of surface calorizing of TMN-B1 intermetallic alloy on the resistance to high-temperature oxidation and gas corrosion

The high-temperature gas corrosion of intermetallic alloys based on titanium aluminides is investigated at 800°C after calorizing. The composition and structure of the surface layer are studied after the tests     

Effect of the stress level on the cavitation erosion rate

The effect of stress on the cavitation erosion rates of cast iron and mild steel was studied using a specially developed ultrasonic test rig. The mechanism of erosion experienced in the test rig is discussed.     

A ring area formed around the erosion pit on 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel surface in incipient cavitation erosion

After a 1 min cavitation experiment performed in an ultrasonic vibration system, needle-like erosion pits appeared on a polished stainless steel surface, and a special ring area was formed around each pit. The shape of the pit and the plastic deformation of the ring area indicate that the mechanical impaction on the surface is the main reason for the cavitation erosion. On the other hand, the iridescent color, the decreased surface hardness and the appearance of the precipitated carbon ring prove that the ring area has experienced a tempering process with the temperature higher than 300 °C. Also, the lack of oxygen in the ring area proves that it is not a chemical oxygen result.     

The reference model of the impact of cavitation erosion on materials

This investigation is devoted to the problems concerning the reliability of units subjected to an erosion attack of heterogeneous liquid mediums containing gas vapor and denser fine-dispersed substances. The results of the simulation of an ambient dynamic action on solid barrier surfaces, and the response of the materials with heterogeneous structures and protecting covers to repeated external pulse attacks with different intensities are presented. The structural-energetic model of the materials’ cavitation and erosion wear is given. The physical-mechanical criteria and time wearing parameters are also presented.     

Effect of liquid metal composition and hydrodynamic parameters on cavitation erosion

Cavitation erosion testing machine for low-temperature melting alloy liquid was developed by using a vibratory apparatus. The erosion tests of SUS304 were carried out in three kinds of lead–bismuth and deionized water. We defined a relative temperature as the percentage between freezing and boiling points. At relative temperature at 14 °C, the erosion rate is 10–12 times in various lead–bismuth alloys, and 2–5 times in sodium, as compared with that in deionized water. When SUS304 was exposed to a cavitation in PbBi, the surface was work hardened 20% harder compared with original surface. In deionized water, SUS304 was work hardened by 5%. Therefore, we can conclude that larger collapse pressure can be estimated to act on the specimen surface in lead–bismuth, as compared with that in water.We discussed the effect of hydrodynamic properties on cavitation erosion in a flowing system. It is considered that the erosion rate in sodium is in proportion to 1st to 6th power of flow velocity similarly to that in mercury. The incipient cavitation number is approximately unity irrespective of test liquids. Furthermore, the relation between MDER and cavitation number is expressed as power low of function with an exponent of 2.5.