THE EFFECT OF PHYTATE AND FIBER CONTENT ON COOKING QUALITY IN FABA BEANS

Seventy-six faba bean lines were analyzed for their phytic acid content in the whole seeds and in the cotyledons. The fiber content was also determined in 17 Faba bean lines. The seed weights; % testa weight-of the seeds; and % moisture uptake (water imbibition) after overnight soaking in distilled water or increasing concentrations of EDTA solutions were measured and recorded. The relation between the above mentioned dependent variables and the cooking time for seed softening (min.) in 76 faba bean lines was studied and simple and multiple correlation coefficients were computed with a total of 70 operations. Significant correlation coefficients were found between phytic acid content in the cotyledons, % testae weight of the seeds; moisture uptake after soaking the seeds in distilled water overnight and cooking time for 50% softening (min). The faba bean lines 606/ 303; 606/ 308, 608/ 334, 609/ 350, proved to be of excellent cooking quality, since their cooking time for 50% seed softening did not exceed 10 min.     

薏米预熟化工艺研究

针对粮食的熟化时间不同,采用常压蒸煮、高温高压蒸煮和微波熟化技术分别对薏米进行预熟化研究,并对比分析3种预熟化工艺对薏米营养成分、质构和色泽的影响。结果表明:常压蒸煮工艺条件为40℃恒温浸泡2.5 h,物料厚度0.7 cm,蒸煮时间15 min;高温高压蒸煮工艺条件为40℃恒温浸泡1 h,蒸煮温度115℃,蒸煮时间3 min;微波预熟化工艺条件为40℃恒温浸泡1.5 h,微波功率539 W,物料厚度2.8 cm,时间5 min。与原料薏米相比,3种预熟化方式制得预熟化薏米中脂肪含量均明显升高,常压蒸煮和高压蒸煮的蛋白质含量升高,而微波预熟化蛋白质含量与原料接近;沸水中煮15 min,焖5 min后,预熟化后薏米的弹性、胶黏性和咀嚼性均明显升高,能与小米共煮同熟;3种预熟化工艺均不同程度改变薏米的色泽。     

Influence of soaking on the nutritional quality of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cooked with or without the soaking water: a review

Bean soaking seems to be unanimously recommended by scientists; however, there is no consensus regarding the need to discard the soaking water before cooking. Thus, the present study proposes to review the influence of maceration on the nutritional quality of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cooked with or without the soaking water, in an attempt to achieve agreement among scientists. The article search was done in a systematic way and eleven studies were found. Of these, three compared the use or not of the soaking water for cooking, seven of them discarded the soaking water and one used the soaking water. This review discusses each nutrient and antinutrient regarding the effects of soaking and compares them with other studies done with legumes. The results were not unanimous but there was a greater advantage to discarding the soaking water before cooking.     

Comparative effect of boiling and solid substrate fermentation using the tempeh fungus (Rhizopus oligosporus) on the flatulence potential of African yambean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa L.) seeds

The tropical African yambean (AYB, Sphenostylis stenocarpa L.) is a protein-rich underutilized African legume. The presence of the flatulence- and diarrhoea-causing raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFO: raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) or α-galactosides has limited the food use of African yambean seeds. To reduce this limitation, non-traditional processing methods are required. Seeds of three varieties were (i) examined for the flatulence- and diarrhoea-causing RFO and (ii) fermented with Rhizopus oligosporus for tempeh production. The traditional tempeh production process involved dehulling, soaking in water for 24 h, boiling in water for 30 min, inoculation and fermentation. In addition, the traditional tempeh procedure was modified by using 1% citric acid solution instead of water for soaking and cooking. Comparisons with traditionally cooked beans, which involved boiling in water for 4 h, were made. Boiling seeds for 4 h resulted in 8–30% reduction of total α-galactosides in the three varieties, while the traditional tempeh procedure resulted in an almost complete loss (98%) of the same (P < 0.05). The modified procedure resulted in a bacteria-free tempeh but α-galactoside reduction was 22–39%. Both tempeh production processes were clearly more effective than was traditional cooking in reducing the flatulence potential of the AYB seeds.     

Relationship between physicochemical and cooking properties,and effects of cooking on antinutrients,of yellow field peas (Pisum sativum)

The relationship between the physicochemical and cooking properties of yellow peas was examined in this study. A positive correlation was found between seed weight and water hydration capacity. The Peleg model, which was modified, could be used to describe the water absorption characteristics of peas and could be used to predict the rate of water absorption in the initial water absorption period. Cooking time could be measured objectively using the Mattson cooker. Cooking time was found to decrease with an increase in water hydration capacity. Hardness of cooked peas, measured using a texture analyser, was negatively correlated with both seed weight and water hydration capacity. Seed coats had a significant effect on water hydration and cooking quality of peas. Peas with relatively thin seed coats exhibited higher water hydration capacity, shorter cooking times and softer texture after cooking. The effects of soaking and cooking on trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) and oligosaccharide levels in peas were also studied. Cooking was more effective than soaking in reducing TIA levels and oligosaccharides (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) in peas. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effects of harvesting procedure,storage time and climatic conditions on cooking time of lentils (Lens culinaris Medikus)

In an experiment conducted over 2 years in Larissa, the effects on the cooking times of six lentil varieties of different harvest periods (early and late), seed storage for 1 year and climatic conditions prevailing during seed production were studied. Cooking time was estimated by measuring seed hardness using a penetrometer (PNR‐6). Late harvesting (when the plants were completely dry) increased cooking times by 6–16% in comparison with early harvesting (when the plants were partly green). This increase was less for the short‐cooking genotypes ‘Dimitra’, ‘Samos’ and ‘Thessalia’ than for the long‐cooking genotypes ‘Arachova’ and ‘Nikaia’. After 1 year of seed storage, cooking times increased on average by 6–9%. Seeds produced during a dry year (1995) required on average 38% less time to cook than seeds produced during a wet year (1996), irrespective of harvest period or duration of seed storage. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

红豆预熟化工艺及理化性质的研究

针对红豆种皮厚、难以煮熟等特点，通过“微波预处理–浸泡–蒸煮”的预熟化技术开发出一款能与大米同煮同熟的红豆产品。在利用响应面法优化预熟化工艺的基础上，对不同糊化度预熟化红豆的外观、色泽、糊化特性、质构和复煮特性进行测试。结果表明：微波时间、微波功率、浸泡时间、蒸煮时间的增加均会显著提升红豆的糊化度。与原料红豆相比，预熟化红豆的色泽变暗、体积膨大数倍、硬度降低、糊化粘度降低、复水性增加7.5～8.8倍，且模拟白米蒸煮条件复煮后无白芯。但随着糊化度的增加，红豆颗粒吸水膨胀、表皮破裂严重、感官分数下降、复水性先增加后降低。综上，优化预熟化最佳工艺为：微波功率640 W，微波时间30 s，浸泡时间6.5 h，蒸煮时间20 min，所得预熟化红豆的糊化度约为57.52%。     

基于食味计评价杂交籼稻食味品质

为探讨不同蒸煮条件对西南两个生态点杂交籼稻食味品质的影响,以分别种植于云南永胜和四川大邑的9 个品种中籼杂交稻为材料,利用米饭食味计分析不同蒸煮条件（7 个水米质量比（1.3∶1、1.5∶1、1.6∶1、1.9∶1、2.1∶1、2.4∶1、2.7∶1）、4 个浸泡时间（0、15、30、60 min）、3 个蒸煮时间（20、30、40 min）和3 个焖饭时间（0、15、30 min））对稻米米饭食味品质的影响。结果表明：稻米米饭的食味品质为蒸煮条件、品种、生态点及其互作效应共同作用的结果,米饭外观和食味值均受三者极显著影响（P＜0.01）;蒸煮条件与生态点、品种与生态点及三者的互作效应均极显著影响米饭食味品质（P＜0.01）。米饭食味计分析结果显示,云南永胜等光温充足稻区以水米质量比2.1∶1、浸泡30 min、蒸煮30 min以及焖制15 min蒸煮米饭的食味品质较好;四川大邑等高湿寡照稻区以水米质量比2.1∶1、浸泡15 min、蒸煮30 min以及焖制15 min蒸煮米饭的食味品质较好。9 个品种中‘内5优39’米饭食味品质最好,且在各水米质量比间变异较小,‘宜香优2115’米饭食味品质次之,而‘中优295’和‘F优498’米饭的食味品质较差,‘F优498’和‘天优华占’米饭食味品质在各蒸煮条件间变异系数较大。总体来看,云南生态点的稻米米饭外观更好,而四川生态点稻米米饭在特定蒸煮条件下食味值更高。     

Hydrothermal treatments of two cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) varieties: effect of micronisation on physicochemical and structural characteristics

The effects of a hydrothermal treatment consisting of tempering (to 41% moisture) and heating to 153 °C (micronisation) on the structural and physicochemical characteristics of two cowpea varieties were studied. The untreated varieties had similar cooking times, although cooked Bechuana white cowpeas were significantly (P ≤ 0.05) softer and had a higher incidence of splitting than Var. 462 cowpeas. This may be due in part to differences in cotyledon structure affecting water uptake during cooking. The hydrothermal treatment changed the physical structure and chemical properties of the cowpea seeds. This led to significant (P ≤ 0.05) reductions in the cooking time of micronised Bechuana white and Var. 462 cowpeas, by 47 and 36% respectively, as compared with control samples. Micronisation caused physical fissuring of the seed coat and cotyledon and significantly (P ≤ 0.05) reduced the bulk density of treated seeds. These changes in the physical structure significantly (P ≤ 0.05) improved the initial water uptake during soaking and cooking, increased the enzyme‐susceptible starch and reduced the protein solubility and hydration capacity of the cowpea seeds. Cooked (60 min) micronised cowpeas also had significantly (P ≤ 0.05) more splits and a significantly (P ≤ 0.05) softer texture than control samples. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Nutritive composition of broth from selected bean varieties cooked for various periods

Ten bean varieties with white, yellow, red and black seed coats were subjected to cooking regimes of 60, 90 and 120 min on a hot plate. The cooking broth was analysed for total soluble solids, dry matter, protein, tannin, calcium, magnesium, iron and available L-tyrosine during in-vitro protein digestion. The results indicated that tannin levels were high in cooking broth from bean varieties with red seed coats compared with broth from those with white and yellow seed coats. Digestibility was higher in white and yellow varieties than in red seed coat bean varieties, suggesting that tannins have a negative effect on bean protein digestibility. All parameters evaluated showed a significant increase with cooking time. Iron occurred in trace amounts and its concentration was not affected by cooking time.     

Effect of Dry Heat Pre-Treatment (Toasting) on the Cooking Time of Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp)

Four cowpea varieties (Brown beans, Oloka beans, IAR48 and IT89KD-288) were toasted at 105 °C, and used to study the effect of dry heat treatment on the cooking time and nutrient composition of cowpea seeds and also its effect on the functional properties of resultant flour of the cowpea seed varieties. Toasting reduced the cooking time for brown and oloka cowpea varieties from 55.00–31.00 and 70.67–51.67 min, respectively. The cooking time for IAR48 and IT89KD-288 cowpea varieties increased from 104.67 to 106.00 and 88.00 to 88.67 min, respectively. The results indicate that the cooking time of cowpea seeds can be reduced significantly on toasting, while maintaining their potential as functional agents in the food industry for nutrition and utilisation. Correlation between the amount of water imbibed by cowpea seeds and their cooking time was -0.74, but was not significant at p ≤ 0.05, suggesting that there is no significant relationship between the amount of water imbibed by cowpea seeds and their cooking time.     

Relationship between cooking time and some physical characteristics in chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)

The time required to cook chickpeas (Cicer arietinum) varies from 55 to over 200 min. Seed weight and volume, swelling index and hydration capacity were found to correlate with cooking time. Correlation coefficients of between 0.65 and 0.75 were found for kabuli-type (large seed) chickpeas, and coefficients of between 0.78 and 0.87 when desi types (small seed) were included. These relationships enable large numbers of chickpea genotypes to be screened rapidly into long, medium and short cooking time types.     

Physical and cooking characteristics of black gram (Phaseolus mungoo L.) cultivars grown in India

Pulses are important component of diet, and information on their physical properties is needed for designing machines while cooking quality is important for consumer acceptance. Three black gram cultivars grown in India were evaluated for physical and cooking properties. Proximate composition revealed that three cultivars contained 24.5–26.7% protein, 1.1–1.3% fat, 2.8–3.7% ash and 60.4–63.3% carbohydrates. Length, breadth and thickness of seeds were in the range of 4.66–5.11 mm, 3.71–3.79 mm and 3.20–3.29 mm, respectively. True density and porosity varied from 1.25–1.29 g mL^?1 to 33.43–36.09%, respectively. Hydration and swelling capacities of the seeds varied from 0.036–0.041 g per seed to 0.037–0.042 mL per seed, respectively. Cooking time of unsoaked seeds varied significantly from 35.3 to 42.7 min. Hardness and adhesiveness of the cooked seeds varied from 2.12–2.55 kg to 0.02–0.99 kg s, respectively. The black gram cultivars are rich in protein, and soaking treatment improved their cooking quality.     

Effects of processing on the thiamin, riboflavin and protein contents of cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp). I. Soaking, cooking and wet milling processes

The effects of soaking, cooking and decortication and conversion to a paste product (moin-moin) on the thiamin, riboflavin and protein contents of six cowpea varieties were investigated. The effect of soaking was not significant but cooking resulted in considerable losses of the two B-vitamins; some of the lost vitamins, especially riboflavin, were detected in the cooking water. Decortication resulted in high losses of the vitamins for the brown varieties of cowpea. The retention of the vitamins in moin-moin was good. Changes in the protein content of the cowpea products as a result of processing were not significant.     

A kinetic approach to textural changes of different banana genotypes (Musa sp.) cooked in boiling water in relation to starch gelatinization

A standardized textural test was developed for characterizing the banana pulp softening process during boiling. While a correlation was established between initial dry matter content and firmness, we observed large differences in cooking behavior between varieties and genotypes, with various softening rates and equilibrium retainable firmnesses. After 33-min cooking, some genotypes exhibited firmnesses 7 times higher than the softest. The biggest firmness losses relative to initial textures found after cooking were: FHIA 20 (20-fold) and FHIA 18 genotypes (40-fold) after 2 h, and Guineo (100-fold) after 98 min. The extent of starch gelatinization was investigated by differential scanning calorimetry and correlated to the amylographic maximum slope using rapid visco analyzer. Regardless of water uptake, the first 15-min cooking demonstrated a strong contribution by the gelatinization process to thermal softening. The firmness losses of 15 Colombian cultivated dessert and cooking banana varieties were evaluated using fractional conversion, and were best fitted by a first-order reaction (R² ? 0.98). Multiple regression was shown to be suitable for preliminary cooking time prediction using Musaceae flour amylographic properties. At 30-min cooking, firmness evaluation was shown to be sufficient for identifying genotypic behavior, and therefore for predicting consumer preferences.     

Effect of pre-dehulling treatments on some nutritional and physical properties of navy and pinto beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

The effect of pre-dehulling treatments using low and high temperatures on some nutritional and physical properties of navy and pinto beans was investigated. Beans were exposed to water (14%, 28% and soaking 1:5, w/v for 6 h, 16 and 16 h, respectively) to facilitate seed coat detachment prior to freeze drying (FD) for 48 h or heat drying (HT) for 20 or 60 min. Exposure to the highest moisture levels produced the largest seed coat yields (17.38-20.91%) and was independent of the drying conditions. The total phenolic content was positively correlated to the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) antioxidant activity and increased as the exposure time to HT increased, but it was unaffected by the FD. The nutritional properties of the bean varieties differed significantly, phytic acid was unaffected, and the highest antioxidant activity was observed on the seed coats of HT pinto beans (69.24-84.46% of DPPH discoloration). Significant physical changes were observed for the HT seeds, with the highest yellowness and the lowest peak viscosity detected in the soaked and HT (60 min) beans.     

粤式豉油鸡传统烹煮过程中的质地及风味变化

研究了典型粤式豉油鸡烹煮过程中鸡肉蒸煮损失、离心损失、氯化钠含量、pH 值、质构、嫩度、微观结构和风味物质的变化,结果表明：煮制初期（5 min）,鸡肉蒸煮损失和食盐渗入量迅速增加,分别为4.47%和0.22%,离心损失也达到最大值（32%）;鸡皮、鸡肉色泽品质在热浸10 min后逐渐形成且稳定提升;烹制过程中,鸡肉硬度、弹性和咀嚼性在煮制10 min后明显增加（P<0.05）,至热浸25 min后达到最高,分别为生鸡肉的1.65倍、1.54倍和4.35倍;鸡肉中肌纤维随加热进行不断收缩紧实,纤维结构变化明显;烹煮过程中鸡肉鲜味、甜味及苦味游离氨基酸总量、鸡肉特征香气物质含量逐渐上升,热浸25 min后上述风味物质含量显著增加（P<0.05）;鸡肉的各项感官评分均逐渐上升,总体可接受度不断提高。至热浸25 min后鸡肉中总游离氨基酸含量为328.81 mg/100 g,鸡肉具有一定硬度及韧性,咀嚼感好,风味品质高,满足粤式豉油鸡的口感要求。     

Influence of Polyphosphate Soak and Cooking Procedures on Yield and Quality of Dungeness Crab Meat

Soaking raw sections in polyphosphate solutions and cooking in water or steam for varying times was evaluated to improve processing. Optimum meat yield, quality and frozen storage stability was achieved by soaking raw section ≥60, but ≥120 min in 10% polyphosphate (2–4°C) and then cooking in steam for a minimum time for complete protein coagulation (8 min). Moisture and proteins, rich in phosphorus, retained by polyphosphate treatment and cooking in steam (rather than water) were believed responsible for improving meat yield, quality and storage stability.     

Nutritional value of African yambean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa,L): improvement by solid substrate fermentation using the tempeh fungus Rhizopus oligosporus

The tropical African yambean (AYB, Sphenostylis stenocarpa L.) is a hardy, protein‐rich under‐utilised African legume. Anti‐nutrients, and the excessively long cooking time (4–6 h), among other factors, limit the food use of African yambean seeds. To reduce these limitations, non‐traditional, less energy consuming processing methods are required. Seeds of different varieties were (1) examined for proximate composition and (2) fermented with Rhizopus oligosporus for the production of tempeh. The traditional production process involves dehulling, soaking in water for 24 h, boiling in water for 30 min, inoculation and fermentation. In addition, the traditional procedure for preparing tempeh was modified by using 1% citric acid solution instead of water for soaking and cooking. Comparisons with traditionally cooked beans, which involved boiling in water for 4 h, were made. The traditional tempeh procedure resulted in a slight but significant increase in protein and starch (P < 0.05) and an almost complete loss of most of the anti‐nutrients of AYB seeds, although the cyanogenic glycoside content of AYB‐white remained high. The modified procedure resulted in a bacteria‐free tempeh and the cyanogenic glycosides were no longer detectable. In vitro protein digestibility of the 1% citric acid treated sample was slightly lower than that of the water‐treated sample. Both tempeh production processes were clearly more effective and less energy intensive than traditional cooking in improving nutritional quality, but only the modified method of tempeh production eliminated the possibility of cyanide poisoning. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

加工工艺对白切鸡品质及微生物状况的影响

为探究加工工艺对白切鸡品质的影响,本研究采用在95 ℃卤水中浸煮18、20、22 min和冰水冷浸8、 15 min的工艺组合加工白切鸡,测定产品得率、保水性、pH值、色泽、质构特性和微观结构等品质指标及其在室 温放置2 h后的菌落总数。结果表明,相同冷却条件下,随着浸煮时间的延长,白切鸡的产品得率显著降低,鸡肉 的保水性显著提升（P＜0.05）,肌纤维间隙变小,室温条件贮藏2 h后菌落总数显著减少（P＜0.05）。冰水冷浸 15 min组白切鸡质构特性显著优于冷浸8 min组（P＜0.05）。感官评价结果显示：浸煮18 min组白切鸡的口感、风 味得分显著低于其他处理组（P＜0.05）;冷浸时间对口感的影响最为显著（P＜0.05）;通过浸煮20 min、冰水冷 浸15 min得到的白切鸡感官评分最高,结合质构特性得分,推荐为较优的加工方式。本研究为进一步探索白切鸡的 标准化和工业化生产提供了一定的理论支持和参考。