An automated image alignment system for the scanning electron microscope

We have developed an automated image alignment system for the scanning electron microscope (SEM). This system enables specific locations on a sample to be located and automatically aligned with submicron accuracy. The system comprises a sample stage motorization and control unit together with dedicated imaging electronics and image processing software. The standard SEM sample stage is motorized in the X and Y axes with stepping motors which are fitted with rotary optical encoders. The imaging electronics are interfaced to beam deflection electronics of the SEM and provide the image data for the image processing software. The system initially moves the motorized sample stage to the area of interest and acquires an image. This image is compared with a reference image to determine the required adjustments to the stage position or beam deflection. This procedure is repeated until the area imaged by the SEM matches the reference image. A hierarchical image correlation technique is used to achieve submicron alignment accuracy in a few seconds. The ability to control the SEM beam deflection enables the images to be aligned with an accuracy far exceeding the positioning ability of the SEM stage. The alignment system may be used on a variety of samples without the need for registration or alignment marks since the features in the SEM image are used for alignment. This system has been used for the automatic inspection of devices on semiconductor wafers, and has also enabled the SEM to be used for direct write self-aligned electron beam lithography.     

Examples of image processing using a computer controlled SEM

Several examples of the use of digital image processing on SEM images are presented. The emphasis is on image enhancement as opposed to pattern recognition. Examples given include non-linear histogram modification, noise filtering, and frame by frame subtraction. Image processing is done on digitally stored images obtained from a modified SEM. The SEM has been modified to allow minicomputer control of the electron/CRT beam position and blanking. Digitization of the sample signals, such as secondary electron, backscattered electron, and absorbed current is done using a 5 MHz voltage to frequency converter and a 100 KHz timer/sealer combination. Software for image storage and manipulation is also described.     

Electron-beam-induced current decay measurements in electron probe instruments using a multichannel analyzer

A simple method for decay measurements of the charge collection mode (commonly referred to as electron-beam-induced current or EBIC) of an electron probe instrument is presented. The decay, which occurs at continuous electron irradiation, should be distinguished from a decay measurement due to the electron beam blanking. This method could be applied to other modes of an electron probe instrument, e.g., cathodoluminescence, in studying electron-beam-sensitive semiconductors. An example of the decay of the EBIC signal in a hydrogenated amorphous silicon device is presented.     

A high voltage programmable ramp generator

In this paper, a ramp generator with programmable slope is presented. It consists of a high voltage step generator, followed by integrator. The capacitor and inductor in the integrator are designed such that they can be varied by a microcontroller. This circuit generates two bipolar ramps with fastest speed <1 ns and provides continuous speed variation from 6 to 30 ns for a ramp of 500 V. This is being developed as a part of automated streak camera for deflection of electron beam.     

Deconvolution of scanning electron microscopy images

This paper describes a method of removing blurs in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images caused by the existence of a finite beam size. Although the resolution of electron microscopy images has been dramatically improved by the use of high-brightness electron guns and low-aberration electron lenses, it is still limited by lens aberration and electron diffraction. Both are inevitable in practical electron optics. Therefore, a further reduction in resolution by improving SEM hardware seems difficult. In order to overcome this difficulty, computer deconvolution has been proposed for SEM images. In the present work, the SEM image is deconvoluted using the electron beam profile estimated from beam optics calculation. The results show that the resolution of the deconvoluted image is improved to one half of the resolution of the original SEM image.     

Secondary electron imaging as an aid to STEM microanalysis

Secondary electron (SEM mode) imaging in a scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) has been utilized as an aid to the STEM microanalysis of second phase particles in an Alloy 800 foil by identifying particles at the foil surface facing the incident beam and energy dispersive X-ray detector. Such particles were optimally situated for microanalysis because possible deleterious effects from beam spreading and matrix absorption were eliminated. This was demonstrated by orienting the sample to analyze the particles on the surface of the foil facing away from the beam and X-ray detector, and subsequently, for comparison, reorienting the sample to reanalyze the particles with the foil surface facing beam and detector. Theoretical calculations of the magnitude of the relative change in particle X-ray signal between the two orientations were in good agreement with the experimental observations. SEM imaging also provided surface reference points for parallax-effect measurements of local foil thickness and particle depth within the foil.     

Improved chopping of a lithium beam for plasma edge diagnostic at ASDEX Upgrade

The lithium beam diagnostic at ASDEX Upgrade routinely delivers electron density profiles in the plasma edge by lithium beam impact excitation spectroscopy. An accurate background subtraction requires a periodically chopped lithium beam. A new, improved chopping system was developed and installed. It involves a voltage modulation for the extractor electrode and the beam deflection plates. The modulation of the extractor electrode reduces the unused portion of lithium ions and improves the stability of the beam with respect to its position. Furthermore, the data indicate an extended emitter lifetime. The extractor chopping was also found to be insensitive to sparks. The deflection chopping experiments demonstrated beam chopping in the kilohertz range. The significantly higher modulation frequency of the deflection chopping improves background subtraction of fast transient events. It allows a more accurate density measurements in the scrape off layer during impurity injections and edge localized modes.     

Focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy in biology

Since the end of the last millennium, the focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB‐SEM) has progressively found use in biological research. This instrument is a scanning electron microscope (SEM) with an attached gallium ion column and the 2 beams, electrons and ions (FIB) are focused on one coincident point. The main application is the acquisition of three‐dimensional data, FIB‐SEM tomography. With the ion beam, some nanometres of the surface are removed and the remaining block‐face is imaged with the electron beam in a repetitive manner. The instrument can also be used to cut open biological structures to get access to internal structures or to prepare thin lamella for imaging by (cryo‐) transmission electron microscopy. Here, we will present an overview of the development of FIB‐SEM and discuss a few points about sample preparation and imaging.     

COUPLED ELECTRICAL-THERMALMECHANICAL ANALYSIS FOR ELECTRICAL/LASER HEATING ASSISTED BLANKING

A coupled electrical-thermal-mechanical analysis is conducted for electrical/laser heating assisted blanking. Two novel localized-heating methods, electrical heating and laser-heating, recently proposed for small-part blanking, are investigated with FE simulations. Results show that electrical heating would result in an advantageous distribution of temperature in a 316 stainless steel work-material. A desired temperature distribution may also be achievable for a copper work-material, if laser beam is used. Both electrical heating and laser-heating enable to reduce the blanking force and increase the aspect ratio achievable by blanking. The simulation also demonstrates that both electrical heating and laser-heating can result in desired temperature-distributions at sufficiently high heating-rates, ease of implementation and application. Comparatively, electrical heating could generate more favorable temperature distribution for small-part blanking.     

Image sharpness measurement in scanning electron microscopy—part II

A method for qualitative and quantitative analysis of scanning electron microscope (SEM) images forthe determination of sharpness is presented in this paper. Described is a procedure for qualitative analysis based on a software program called SEM Monitor that can be applied to research or industrial SEMs for day-to-day performance monitoring. The idea is based on the fact that, as the electron beam scans the sample, the low-frequency changes in the video signal show information about the larger features and the high-frequency changes give data on finer details. The image contains information about the primary electron beam and about all the parts contributing to the signal formation in the SEM. If everything else is kept unchanged, with a suitable sample, the geometric parameters of the primary electron beam can be mathematically determined. An image of a sample, which has fine details at a given magnification, is sharper if there are more high frequency changes in it. In the SEM, a better focused electron beam yields a sharper image, and this sharpness can be measured. The method described is based on calculations in the frequency domain and can also be used to check and optimize two basic parameters of the primary electron beam, the focus, and the astigmatism.     

考虑温度效应的两端固支微机电开关梁静力分析

建立考虑温度效应的二维两端固支微机电开关梁静力变形分析模型,利用该模型分析温度变化引起的失稳问题,并利用该模型对两端固支微开关梁受电场力和温度作用下的受力变形进行分析。分析过程分为三个阶段：梁受电场力和温度变化作用,而在梁中点不受任何约束的变形阶段;除受电场力和温度变化作用外,梁中点变形受约束,因而梁中点受支反力作用的变形阶段;梁受电场力、温度变化以及支反力作用,并且在梁的中间一段具有指定挠度和转角的变形阶段。第二阶段中支反力的大小以及第三阶段中支反力的大小和位置都同驱动电压和温度变化有关。在实例中,给出部分计算结果,包括：温度变化对不同阶段梁受力变形的影响、对吸合电压的影响、对微开关电容的影响,以及不同温度变化下梁长对吸合电压的影响和不同温度变化下梁高对吸合电压的影响等,从中可以看出温度变化的作用及考虑温度效应的必要性。     

基于电子束能量分布控制的异种金属的焊接

在通用真空电子束焊机的基础上配置两对电子束偏转线圈、工控机、多功能数据采集卡、功率放大器以及虚拟仪器软件,构建一个电子束能量分布控制系统.利用该系统可对电子束扫描加热区域的能量密度分配进行离线编辑、计算和预测,并将电子束焊接过程中的三维能量分布实时显示在工控机屏幕上.对铌钛异种合金采用不对称热输入的扫描加热方式进行焊接,获得了铌、钛熔化量相当,焊缝形状对称的焊接接头.     

基于UG平台的冲裁模CAD系统中的图形输入

通过对DXF文件结构及内容、二维冲裁件图形几何信息及拓扑关系的分析,研究了从DXF文件中获取图形数据的方法和基于UG平台的冲裁模CAD系统的二维图形信息在计算机内的存储结构及其信息识别方法,并根据其数据结构特征,构造出了一种二维图形的数据模型,运用C语言直接对文件进行数据提取,然后按照一定的算法识别提取出的数据,构建起冲裁件的几何模型,为冲裁模工艺可行性分析、工艺设计和优化排样提供了必要的信息。     

Tomography of insulating biological and geological materials using focused ion beam (FIB) sectioning and low-kV BSE imaging

Tomography in a focused ion beam (FIB) scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a powerful method for the characterization of three-dimensional micro- and nanostructures. Although this technique can be routinely applied to conducting materials, FIB–SEM tomography of many insulators, including biological, geological and ceramic samples, is often more difficult because of charging effects that disturb the serial sectioning using the ion beam or the imaging using the electron beam. Here, we show that automatic tomography of biological and geological samples can be achieved by serial sectioning with a focused ion beam and block-face imaging using low-kV backscattered electrons. In addition, a new ion milling geometry is used that reduces the effects of intensity gradients that are inherent in conventional geometry used for FIB–SEM tomography.     

Electron Beam Induced Growth of Silver Nanoparticles

An electron beam inducing method for sprouting large quantities of silver nanoparticles on the surface of silver chloride particles is reported. The electron beam driven process was characterized by time‐dependent scanning electron microscope (SEM) and energy dispersive spectrum (EDS), allowing for observing several key intermediates in and characteristics of the growth process. Theoretical calculation coupled with experimental observation demonstrated that the growth of silver nanoparticles was mostly related to the current density of electron beam. Decomposition of the silver chloride on the surface of sample was under electron beam irradiation resulted in silver nanoparticles and chlorine. This phenomenon could be useful in developing a novel mechanism for preparation of nanostructures and proposing a reference to avoid image distortion during the characterization of silver compounds under SEM. SCANNING 35: 69‐74, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Beam optics in a MeV-class multi-aperture multi-grid accelerator for the ITER neutral beam injector

In a multi-aperture multi-grid accelerator of the ITER neutral beam injector, the beamlets are deflected due to space charge repulsion between beamlets and beam groups, and also due to magnetic field. Moreover, the beamlet deflection is influenced by electric field distortion generated by grid support structure. Such complicated beamlet deflections and the compensations have been examined utilizing a three-dimensional beam analysis. The space charge repulsion and the influence by the grid support structure were studied in a 1∕4 model of the accelerator including 320 beamlets. Beamlet deflection due to the magnetic field was studied by a single beamlet model. As the results, compensation methods of the beamlet deflection were designed, so as to utilize a metal bar (so-called field shaping plate) of 1 mm thick beneath the electron suppression grid (ESG), and an aperture offset of 1 mm in the ESG.     

A phase-shift technique for high-speed e-beam testing with picosecond time resolution

Electron beam sampling of high speed digital devices requires a high time resolution. At the same time, long-range phase shifting is necessary because signals in these circuits may have very long period lengths. In this article, a new phase-shift method is described which allows sampling of low repetition rate signals without any degradation of the time resolution. This long range phase shift is realized by an additional set of blanking plates or blanking capacitor, which, acting as a gate, selects one of a large number of electron pulses produced by a first blanking capacitor. This technique also allows fast switching between different phase angles. The phase-shift method was evaluated experimentally using the picosecond e-beam tester which was developed here. The time resolution of this tester has been optimized recently to allow for stroboscopic testing with a 7 ps pulse width at 20 mV/√Hz noise voltage and 0.5 μm spot size. This allows for the measuring of rise times down to 14 ps with an error below 10%. Phase shifts of 100 ns were realized without any degradation of this time resolution. Propagation delays of 3.5 ps could be resolved. Signal rise times of 40 ps, corresponding to 0.04% of the total delay could be easily measured.     

Practical method for high-resolution imaging of polymers by low-voltage scanning electron microscopy

Morphologic characterization of polymers by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is often made difficult by their sensitivity to electron beam damage. We describe here a specimen preparation method for the imaging of polymer blends by low-voltage SEM (LV-SEM) that improves their stability in the electron beam and hence facilitates focusing and recording of high magnification images. Its application to nanosized core-shell latexes embedded in a polymethylmethacrylate matrix and semi-crystalline polypropylene/ethylene-propylene rubber blends is discussed.     

High resolution at low beam energy in the SEM: resolution measurement of a monochromated SEM

The resolution of secondary electron low beam energy imaging of a scanning electron microscope equipped with a monochromator is quantitatively measured using the contrast transfer function (CTF) method. High-resolution images, with sub-nm resolutions, were produced using low beam energies. The use of a monochromator is shown to quantitatively improve the resolution of the SEM at low beam energies by limiting the chromatic aberration contribution to the electron probe size as demonstrated with calculations and images of suitable samples. Secondary electron image resolution at low beam energies is ultimately limited by noise in the images as shown by the CTFs.     

Expanded beam deflection method for simultaneous measurement of displacement and vibrations of multiple microcantilevers

Here we present an extension of optical beam deflection (OBD) method for measuring displacement and vibrations of an array of microcantilevers. Instead of focusing on the cantilever, the optical beam is either focused above or below the cantilever array, or focused only in the axis parallel to the cantilevers length, allowing a wide optical line to span multiple cantilevers in the array. Each cantilever reflects a part of the incident beam, which is then directed onto a photodiode array detector in a manner allowing distinguishing between individual beams. Each part of reflected beam behaves like a single beam of roughly the same divergence angle in the bending sensing axis as the incident beam. Since sensitivity of the OBD method depends on the divergence angle of deflected beam, high sensitivity is preserved in proposed expanded beam deflection (EBD) method. At the detector, each spot's position is measured at the same time, without time multiplexing of light sources. This provides real simultaneous readout of entire array, unavailable in most of competitive methods, and thus increases time resolution of the measurement. Expanded beam can also span another line of cantilevers allowing monitoring of specially designed two-dimensional arrays. In this paper, we present first results of application of EBD method to cantilever sensors. We show how thermal noise resolution can be easily achieved and combined with thermal noise based resonance frequency measurement.