Processing of ambiguous and unambiguous feedback by depressed and nondepressed college students: Schematic biases and their implications for depressive realism.

Explored schematic processing as a mechanism for predicting (a) when depressed Ss would be negative relative to nondepressed Ss and (b) when depressed and nondepressed Ss would show biased or unbiased (i.e., "realistic") processing. Depressed and nondepressed Ss performed multiple trials of a task under conditions in which the 2 groups held either equivalent or different schemas regarding this task. Ss received either an unambiguous or objectively normed ambiguous feedback cue on each trial. In full support of schematic processing, depressed Ss showed negative encoding relative to nondepressed Ss only when their schemas were more negative, and both depressed and nondepressed Ss showed positively biased, negatively biased, and unbiased encoding depending on the relative feedback cue-to-schema match. Depressed and nondepressed Ss' response latencies to unambiguous feedback also supported the occurrence of schematic processing. We discuss the methodological, treatment, and "realism" implications of these findings and suggest a more precise formulation of Beck's schema theory of depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Monocular asymmetries in vision: A phenomenal basis for eye signature.

Explored the conditions under which observers with known sighting dominance characteristics could discriminate eye-of-origin information in 3 experiments with 59 Ss. The nature of phenomenal differences between the 2 monocular channels was also investigated. All Ss were required to have uncorrected visual acuity of 20/30 or better in each eye with no differences between eyes and to show strong sighting dominance (i.e., the consistent use of the same eye for sighting). Exps I and II required Ss to identify the eye receiving visual information under conditions in which the stimuli were presented covertly to only 1 eye or, in some instances, to both eyes (an utrocular discrimination paradigm). Ss could distinguish between monocular stimulation and discriminate binocular from monocular exposures only after feedback on the accuracy of the original responses was given. Exp III investigated the type of information differentiating the 2 monocular images used by the Ss during the feedback training. Ss assigned different ratings of image quality to the 2 monocular images when they were given the opportunity to compare them directly. Findings suggest that the phenomenal difference between the monocular images demonstrated in Exp III may have been the discriminative cue learned by Ss in the previous 2 experiments to improve their utrocular discrimination. (French abstract) (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Company motivates the miserable": The impact of consensus information on help seeking for psychological problems.

Based on an attribution theory analysis, it was predicted that normal Ss (those who do not evidence a particular target problem) would be least motivated to seek help for a psychological problem when they believe that the problem is actuarially common (i.e., high consensus). Based on an analysis of how target problem people evaluate their psychological problem, however, it was predicted that such Ss (unlike normals) should be maximally motivated to seek help when they believe that the problem is common. To test these predictions, target problem and normal Ss (72 high vs average test anxious female undergraduates, as assessed by the Test Anxiety Inventory) were given feedback that they possessed a problem (test anxiety). Ss were then told that their problem was either common, uncommon, or given no consensus information. As predicted, the higher consensus information led to the least help-seeking behavior for the normal Ss and to the most help-seeking behavior for the target problem Ss. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-schemas, possible selves, and competent performance.

College students were classified as either schematic for being a good problem solver (i.e., they believed they were very good in this area, and this ability was very important to their self-evaluation) or aschematic for this ability (i.e., they believed they had moderate ability in this area, and this ability was of moderate to low importance to their self-evaluation). In Study 1, schematic and aschematic Ss performed equally well in an initial problem-solving test; however, aschematic Ss did not enjoy the task and had negative possible selves related to logical ability active in working memory. In Study 2, aschematic Ss maintained competent performance on a problem-solving test only when given failure feedback on an earlier test. The results point to the importance of the self-concept in the development and maintenance of competence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The overconfidence effect in social prediction.

In 5 studies with overlapping designs and intents, Ss predicted a specific peer's responses to a variety of stimulus situations, each of which offered a pair of mutually exclusive and exhaustive response alternatives. Each prediction was accompanied by a subjective probability estimate reflecting the Ss' confidence in its accuracy—a measure validated in Study 5 by having Ss choose whether to "gamble" on the accuracy of their prediction or on the outcome of a simple aleatory event. In social prediction, as in other judgmental domains, Ss were highly overconfident. Regardless of the type of prediction item (e.g., responses to hypothetical dilemmas) and regardless of the type of information available about the person whose responses they were predicting (e.g., predictions about roommates), Ss' accuracy levels fell below levels required to justify their confidence levels. Analysis revealed 2 sources of overconfidence. Ss generally were overconfident to the extent that they were highly confident. Also, Ss were most likely to be overconfident when they knowingly or unknowingly made predictions that ran counter to the relevant response base rates and, as a consequence, achieved low accuracy rates that their confidence estimates failed to anticipate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of prestriate, inferotemporal, and superior temporal sulcus lesions on attention and gaze shifts in rhesus monkeys.

Studied the role of extrastriate cortical areas in selective attention in 12 rhesus monkeys. Ss learned a series of color–form pattern discrimination problems, with either color or form cues relevant. After each problem was mastered, correct behavior required a shift in attention (i.e., that responses be made to the previously irrelevant dimension). On some problems shifting attention required that the S maintain the same fixation; on other problems the color and form cues were separated in space, and the attention shift presumably required a shift in gaze. Matched groups of Ss with inferotemporal, prestriate, or superior temporal sulcus lesions, and normal controls, differed significantly in their ability to shift attention. Analyses of inferred stages in attention shift showed that different processes were disturbed in the 3 lesion groups. Results are discussed in terms of cortical substrates for "looking" and "seeing." (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perception of social interactions in depressed psychiatric patients.

20 21–61 yr old depressed females, 20 depressed Ss in remission, and 20 control Ss were shown videotapes of positive (involving praise), negative (involving criticism), and neutral social interactions. Half of the Ss in each group were instructed to imagine the interactions being directed toward them, and half were instructed to imagine the interactions being directed toward another person. Ss rated each interaction on 11 semantic differential scales. Following a principal components analysis with varimax rotation, analysis of component scores indicated that depressed Ss rated negative interactions lower (i.e., in a more socially undesirable way) than controls only when the interactions were directed toward them. The question of whether or not the perception of negative interactions by depressed persons is distorted is discussed. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stereotypes and social judgment.

In 5 experiments, 272 university students were initially exposed to an induction series in which there was a systematic association between the amount of psychopathology that was implied by various behavior samples and other readily discernable aspects of these samples (i.e., correlated cues). In 2 studies, for example, a series of confused definitions or nonpathological definitions were described as coming from patients at psychiatric or general hospitals. The introduction of correlated cues often produced contrast effects, suggesting that Ss may have evaluated the test definitions by implicitly comparing them to other definitions from that category (e.g., other definitions from the same hospital). Assimilation effects were observed when Ss were required to indicate their overall impressions of a given patient, or group of patients, before evaluating a particular definition. Findings are discussed in terms of priming and stereotyping. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Electromyograph feedback as a relaxation technique.

Compared an EMG feedback group of 10 normal undergraduate males with 2 control conditions of 10 Ss each. One control group was told to relax but given no specific instructions nor feedback, only a constant tone. The 2nd control group was given instructions about relaxation, a constant tone but no feedback. The feedback group received variable-tone feedback from the frontalis muscle. Every S had 1 baseline session and 7 21-min practice sessions over a 2-wk period. The feedback group achieved significantly lower EMG scores than the 2 control groups, which did not significantly differ between themselves. Measures of subjective anxiety (Mattsson's Anxiety Scale) showed significant decreases between the beginning and end of each session for all 3 groups, but only 1 of the 6 measures of state anxiety (e.g., Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Nowlis Mood Adjective Check List, and Mooney Problem Checklist) favored the feedback group over the controls. No differences between groups emerged on measures of trait anxiety. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning that food is inedible in freely behaving Aplysia californica..

Freely behaving Aplysia californica can learn that food is inedible. Ss were given access to seaweed tied into canvas and attached to a force transducer. Ss repeatedly found the stimulus, attempted to ingest it, and failed. The force transducer provided an objective record of the number of attempts made by the animal to ingest the stimulus, the length of each attempt, and its intensity (i.e., peak force exerted). Within 2.5 hrs, Ss showed significant declines in these 3 measures of response to the stimulus. When exposed to the same stimulus the next day, animals showed more rapid declines in responsiveness, which indicate a retention of learning. Training appeared to be specific. Responses to the seaweed Laurencia of animals previously trained on the seaweed Ulva do not differ from the responses of naive animals to Laurencia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Area and volume conservation among the elderly: Assessment and training.

Conducted 2 studies to examine whether the elderly maintain the competence to adequately solve problems of logical thinking. In the 1st study the performance of 60 noninstitutionalized middle-class elderly females was assessed on area and volume conservation tasks. On overall performance only 33.3% of the Ss were classified as conservers. In the 2nd study a training paradigm was used to determine whether simple verbal feedback activated the strategies required for adequate performance on conservation tasks. 22 Ss who failed at least 2 conservation tasks in the assessment study were administered a 20-trial training procedure. Half of these Ss received simple verbal feedback following each response, while half received no feedback. Results on an immediate posttest indicated that the feedback group performed significantly better than the control group on the near transfer posttest task and on the majority of far transfer tasks. The results are discussed in terms of a distinction between competence and performance. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Simulation training of psychomotor skills: Teaching the brain-injured to drive.

13 brain-injured individuals (average age 24.2 yrs) completed a set of 7 exercises simulating specific cognitive and behavioral aspects of motor vehicle operation, using an electric-powered vehicle, to test whether training would generalize to a complex functional task (i.e., automobile driving). Training exercises involved visuomotor tracking, divided attention, successive increases in difficulty level, performance feedback, and social reinforcement. Ss were compared with 11 closed-head-injured controls of the same average age, who received experience with the electric vehicle but no training exercises, and with 11 normal high-school students, who had driver's licenses and were trained in some of the exercises (e.g., divided attention). Training consisted of 8 2-hr sessions; at the conclusion of training, experimental and control Ss were evaluated in an on-the-road automobile test. Results indicate that experimental Ss showed improvements on the specific exercises, and training resulted in improved performance on tests of on-the-road driving when compared with closed-head-injured controls, who did not show improvement in their driving performance. Results suggest a significant therapeutic effect of the specific training exercises. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hippocampectomy disrupts trace eye-blink conditioning in rabbits.

The role of the hippocampus (HPC) in trace eye-blink conditioning was evaluated using a 100-ms tone conditioned stimulus/stimuli (CS), a 300- or 500-ms trace interval, and a 150-ms air puff unconditioned stimulus/stimuli (UCS). Rabbits received complete hippocampectomy (dorsal & ventral), sham lesions or neocortical lesions. Hippocampectomy produced differential effects in relation to the trace interval used. With a 300-ms trace interval, HPC-lesioned Ss showed profound resistance to extinction after acquisition. With a 500-ms trace interval, HPC-lesioned Ss did not learn the task (only 22% conditioned responses [CRs] after 25 sessions, whereas controls showed >80% after 10 sessions), and on the few trials in which a CR occurred, most were "nonadaptive" short-latency CRs (i.e., they started during or just after the CS and always terminated prior to UCS onset). The authors conclude that the HPC encodes a temporal relationship between CS and UCS, and when the trace interval is long enough (e.g., 500 ms), that the HPC is necessary for associative learning of the conditioned eye-blink response. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Manipulating Subjective Expectancy Through Feedback: A Laboratory Study of the Expectancy-Performance Relationship": Correction to Janz.

Reports an error in the original article by Janz (Journal of Applied Psychology. Vol 67(4) Aug 1982, 480-485). On page 481 and 484, the numbers of subjects in some places were reported incorrectly. The corrections are provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1982-29612-001.) Investigated the form of the expectancy-performance relationship in a laboratory study of the performance of 132 undergraduates on a simple clerical task. As feedback after each of 8 trials, Ss were told that their performance was better, worse, or borderline. Ss recorded their subjective expectancies before each trial. Over all Ss, feedback condition had no impact on performance; but when 39 Ss whose reported expectancy did not match their assigned feedback were eliminated, a strong expectancy-performance relationship emerged. Ss having intermediate expectancy outperformed those whose expectancy was low or high. Examination of the nonbelievers supported the mediating role of cognitive variables in deciding how hard to work at this task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental response to limb deficiency and limb replacement.

Discusses perceptual–motor and cognitive development in children with congenital upper-limb deficiency and the use of myoelectric (i.e., responsive to muscle contractions) arm prosthesis in treatment. Ss can be trained to control motor activity that activates artificial limb movement, using conditioning or auditory and visual feedback. Limb deficient Ss may be delayed in the acquisition of object permanence, eye–hand coordination, and normal bilateral skills. Research on cognitive abnormalities in these Ss is inconclusive but may be influenced by the degree of limb deficiency. A longitudinal case study of a 19-mo-old quadrimembral amputee fitted with a myoelectric prosthesis is presented. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Partial knowledge and self-correction: Developmental studies of a quantitative concept.

Partial knowledge is operationally defined to be either restricted (i.e., when the knowledge is used consistently but is sometimes erroneous) or variable (i.e., when it is used inconsistently). Different types of cognitive structure are proposed as the psychological bases of these observably distinct types of partial knowledge. The theory was tested in 2 experiments using data from 124 Ss' (2 yrs 10 mo to 6 yrs 2 mo of age) partial knowledge of relations between numerosity and density. A novel task required Ss to stack blocks on a vertical rod. Results show that Ss' knowledge was variable and structured cognitively as 2 modular components. Errors were attributed to faulty coordination of these components and to vagueness in identifying goals. However, self-correction of errors increased with age. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Real and simulated occurrences of memory distortion in hypnosis.

79 undergraduates were prescreened for high or low susceptibility to hypnosis (Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility—Form A) and tested individually to examine memory distortion in hypnosis. Independent groups of Ss were allocated to a 2?×?2 factorial design in which S grouping (hypnotic or simulating) was crossed with an information condition that either misled or did not mislead Ss about a series of scenes depicting an apparent robbery. It was hypothesized that memory distortion would characterize the performance of hypnotic Ss when memory was examined in unstructured, narrative recall. Results show that real Ss were differentiated appreciably from simulating Ss in the extent to which they incorrectly intruded uncued errors (i.e., errors not arising from misleading information) into their memories but not in their intrusion of cued errors (i.e., errors arising from misleading information). Real Ss remembered correctly more detail of a peripheral kind but also distorted more with respect to the same kind of detail. Results overall negate the view that earlier memory traces are revived in hypnosis, thereby leading to more accurate retrieval, and suggest that hypnotic Ss bring distinctive styles of information processing to bear on their recollections of complex, socially meaningful events. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trance logic as incomplete responding.

Two experiments tested predictions derived from the logical incongruity and differential demands hypotheses of trance logic responding. In Exp I, Ss that were highly susceptible to hypnosis showed higher levels of responding on 3 trance logic indexes (i.e., transparent hallucinating, duality, incongruous writing in age regression) than did Ss low in susceptibility to hypnosis who were instructed to fake hypnosis (i.e., simulators). In line with the differential demands hypothesis, hypnotic "reals" were less likely than simulators to report believing in the reality of the suggested situations and were less likely to report fine details in their hallucinations. Rate of trance logic responding correlated negatively with the degree to which hypnotic reals rated themselves as subjectively experiencing suggested effects, and as becoming absorbed in suggestions. Exp II found that highly susceptible hypnotic and nonhypnotic Ss (collectively called "reals") responded equivalently on all suggestions. High- and low-susceptible simulators also performed equivalently on all suggestions. Consistent with the differential demands hypothesis, (a) trance logic indexes differentiated reals from simulators when these indexes also measured incomplete subjective responding, and (b) trance logic indexes that failed to measure incomplete responding also failed to differentiate reals from simulators. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and the response of others.

Tested the hypotheses that (a) normal Ss respond differentially to the behavior of depressed patients, (b) this differential response is due to the fact that the target individuals are depressed, and not that they are patients, and (c) this pattern can be related to the symptomatology of depression. Each of 45 normal female undergraduates conversed on the telephone with either a depressed patient ( n = 15), a nondepressed patient ( n = 15), or a normal control ( n = 15). It was found that following the phone conversation, Ss who had spoken to depressed patients were themselves significantly more depressed, anxious, hostile, and rejecting. Measures of activity, approval responses, hope statements, and genuineness did not distinguish between S groups or between target groups, but important differences were found in the Ss' perception of the patients. It was proposed that environmental response may play an important role in the maintenance of depressed behavior. Furthermore, special skills may be required of the depressed person to cope with the environment his behavior creates. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)