Genetic differences in avoidance learning by Rattus norvegicus: Escape/avoidance responding, sensitivity to electric shock, discrimination learning, and open-field behavior.

Studied the behaviors of Long-Evans rats selectively bred for either good (SHA line) or poor (SLA line) shuttle box avoidance learning. The results of Exp I indicated that the phenotypic difference in avoidance learning was not associated with differences in speed of escape or avoidance responding. Differences between the lines in frequency of intertrial responses (ITRs), which appeared during training but not during pretest, suggest that ITRs in Ss of the low-avoidance SLA line were more suppressed by electric shock than in Ss of the high-avoidance SHA line. This result suggests that SLA Ss may be more emotionally responsive than SHA Ss. Exp II demonstrated that the Ss of the 2 lines did not differ in absolute sensitivity to electric shock, and Exp III showed that the poor performance of the SLA line was not due to an inability to learn. Ss also provided evidence that the poor avoidance learning by SLA Ss was due to their emotional reactivity. Observations of open-field behavior in Exp IV were consistent with this hypothesis. It is concluded that the major consistent correlate of the phenotypic difference in avoidance learning was greater emotionality or emotional reactivity in SLA than in SHA Ss. (57 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional reactivity and conditionability in four strains of rats.

Compared Maudsley reactive (MR) and nonreactive (MNR) (n = 40) and Roman high-avoidance (RHA) and low-avoidance (RLA) (n = 20) male albino rats with respect to emotional reactivity and conditionability. The degree of suppression of water-drinking behavior by unsignaled electric shocks was a measure of emotionality, and the rate of recovery of drinking behavior when the unsignaled shock became signaled was a measure of conditionability. The MR Ss were the most emotional, the MNR Ss were the least emotional, and the 2 Roman strains were intermediate. The RLA Ss were shown to have poor conditionability, while the other 3 strains did not differ from each other. (26 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sensory responsiveness and avoidance learning in rats.

Conducted an analysis of sensory responsiveness and avoidance learning in 3 experiments using 5 rat strains: MNR/Har/Lu, MR/Har/Lu, RCA/Lu, RHA/Lu, and RLA/Lu. Ss totaled 470. There were significant differences among the strains in response to electric footshock. Also, the strain-specific shock intensity as the UCS elicited significantly higher rates of avoidance learning as compared with the rates of avoidance learning under an equal but average level of shock intensity as the UCS. In general, discrete auditory and visual sensory modes as the CS produced almost the same rate of avoidance learning. The proportion of variation in avoidance learning attributable to strains was significant under all 6 experimental conditions except the no-discrete CS and strain-specific UCS conditions. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ontogeny and interdependence of genetically selected behaviors in rats: Avoidance response and open field.

Investigated in 2 experiments, ontogeny and interdependence of genetically selected avoidance and open-field behaviors in 6 genetic lines (e.g., MNR/Har/Lu, RCA/Lu), involving 1,018 rats, and 3 developmental models (longitudinal, cross-sectional, and generational). In selected lines, behaviors varied with age (either 21-, 35-, 70-, or 100 days of age), depending upon the genetic selection; in the control (random bred) line, no such effects were found. Between the lines selected for high (RHA) and low (RLA) rates of 2-way active avoidance, ontogenetic differences in the selected behavior emerged as Ss grew older, whereas between the lines selected for high (MR) and low (MNR) frequency of open-field defecation, the differences in the selected behavior were present at all stages of development. In Ss' unconditioned escape response to footshock, the differences were present at all stages. The relationship between avoidance response and open-field defecation (emotional reactivity) was not linear but suggestive of a curvilinear inverted-–U function. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interaction among genotype, unconditioned stimulus, d-amphetamine, and one-way avoidance behavior of rats.

In the genetic analysis of avoidance learning, questions relating to the generality to other avoidance behaviors and the role of motivation were investigated in 61 RHA/Lu and 61 RLA/Lu rats. Significant differences were found in 1-way avoidance behavior of the strains selectively bred for 2-way active avoidance. In 6 experiments, these differences in 1-way avoidance either disappeared or were minimized to a great extent under the effects of dextroamphetamine. The experimental manipulation of motivation (i.e., unconditioned stimulus shock level equivalent to the unconditioned flinch, jump, and fleeing response measures) accounted for only part of the variation in avoidance learning of these strains. Results are discussed in the terms of inverted-–U arousal function and quantitative genetics. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral responsiveness of adrenalectomized, hypophysectomized, and intact rats to electric shock.

Tested whether the altered rates of acquisition and extinction of avoidance behavior in adrenalectomized and hypophysectomized rats are associated with abnormal responsiveness to electric shock. The electrical threshold for flinch, jump, and vocalization behaviors in adrenalectomized and hypophysectomized Ss (N = 95) was measured in 2 experiments. Adrenalectomized Ss had higher thresholds for flinch and jump responses than hypophysectomized Ss, and also a higher flinch threshold than weight-matched controls. Hypophysectomized Ss had normal thresholds for all 3 behaviors. The difference in threshold for the flinch response between adrenalectomized and hypophysectomized or normal Ss was not explained by differences in body weight, although heavy Ss responded less to electric shock than light Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A behavioral and pharmacological analysis of variables mediating active-avoidance behavior in rats.

In Exp. I, two strains of rats (F344 and ZM) were run in a discriminated -maze avoidance task. The F344s were greatly superior to ZMs in acquiring the avoidance response although both strains learned the discrimination. Analysis of other response measures indicates that F344s made significantly more active responses, suggesting that differences in avoidance behavior were due to strain-specific differences in the unconditioned response to shock. In Exp. II, the same Ss were administered d-amphetamine, scopolamine, or a combination of the 2 drugs. These manipulations significantly improved avoidance behavior in the ZM strain and increased other active responses. Results suggest that the prepotent variable in active-avoidance acquisition is the extent to which the S's response to shock is compatible with the response required. (23 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Arousal explains difference in avoidance learning of genetically selected rat strains.

Manipulated task complexity differences in avoidance learning of genetically selected strains of rats under dextroamphetamine (1, 2, and 4 mg/kg, ip). 288 Ss from RHA/Lu, RLA/Lu, RCA/Lu, RHA by RLA, and RLA by RHA strains were studied. With decreasing levels of task complexity the differences in avoidance learning between the selectively bred strains decreased significantly. Under the lower levels of complexity the strains reversed their relative positions in avoidance learning. Results are discussed in terms of inverted-–U arousal function. The factors investigated in this study indicate that the differences in avoidance behavior of these lines of rats may be understood as deriving from genetically related different levels of arousal. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Electrophysiological activity in the central nucleus of the amygdala, emotionality and stress ulcers in rats.

Multiple-unit activity in the central nucleus of the amygdala was continuously recorded during 4 hr of restraint stress in rats. Five different activity profiles were found. Two types were associated with stress ulceration: one with increased stomach pathology, and the other with decreased stomach pathology. The same unit profiles were also differentially related to the emotionality characteristics of Wistar-derived rats, as well as to those of the genetically selected lines of Roman high- and low-avoidance rats. The type of profile that had been associated with increased pathology was generally seen in the Roman low-avoidance rats and in the Wistar rats that had been judged to be more emotional, that is, defecated before five "rearings" had occurred in an open-field test. The other unit profile was significantly more frequent in the Roman high-avoidance animals and the less emotional Wistar rats. Low-level electrical stimulation of both types of units produced stomach erosions in all cases. It was concluded that the unit activity in the central nucleus of the amygdala reflects certain emotionality characteristics of rats and also their susceptibility to stress ulcers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locomotor, avoidance, and maze behavior in rats with selective disruption of hippocampal output.

Investigated behavioral correlates of selective disruption of hippocampal output in a series of 5 experiments. A total of 136 male albino Moll-Wistar rats were used as Ss. In 2 experiments an attempt was made through behavioral investigation to determine whether the CA1 neurons project to the fimbria or to the subiculum. Results support recent views that the subiculum is the recipient of CA1 axons. Disruption of the CA1 output in the dorsal hippocampus of Ss produced increased open-field activity, whereas passive avoidance and spontaneous alternation behaviors remained unchanged. No differentiation was obtained between CA1 damage and neocortical lesions in maze learning. Blocking of the fimbrial CA3 output from the dorsal hippocampus improved passive avoidance performance and impaired active avoidance performance, whereas open-field and spontaneous alternation behaviors were unaffected. Interruptions of the CA3 output from the ventral hippocampus improved active avoidance performance and reduced spontaneous alternation behavior. Open-field behavior and passive avoidance performance remained unchanged. Total fimbrial sections increased open-field activity, improved passive and active avoidance, and reduced spontaneous alternation. Results are discussed in terms of functional differentiation between the CA1 and CA3 of the dorsal hippocampus aknd in terms of functional in the fimbrial CA3 output from the dorsal and ventral hippocampus. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Running-wheel avoidance learning in rats (Rattus norvegicus): Effects of contingencies and comparisons of different strains.

In Experiment 1, we showed that active- and passive-avoidance responding in a running wheel was learned because of the avoidance contingency. In Experiment 2, strain differences among four commercially bred rats were assessed in an active-avoidance paradigm. Wistar, Donryu, and Fischer rats learned faster than Sprague-Dawleys. In Experiment 3, learning in a multiple active/passive avoidance schedule was examined, and both components of this task were learned. This multiple schedule was used to investigate strain differences in selectively bred rats in Experiments 4 and 5. Tsukuba low-emotional (TLE) rats responded more than Tsukuba high-emotional (THE) rats in both components. However, discrimination of passive components was better in THE than in TLE rats. Syracuse high-avoidance rats were superior in the active component, whereas Syracuse low-avoidance rats showed superior performance in the passive component. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The classroom environment and students' reports of avoidance strategies in mathematics: A multimethod study.

The relation between the learning environment (e.g., students' perceptions of the classroom goal structure and teachers' instructional discourse) and students' reported use of avoidance strategies (self-handicapping, avoidance of help seeking) and preference to avoid novelty in mathematics was examined. Quantitative analyses indicated that students' reports of avoidance behaviors varied significantly among classrooms. A perceived emphasis on mastery goals in the classroom was positively related to lower reports of avoidance. Qualitative analyses revealed that teachers in high-mastery/low-avoidance and low-mastery/high-avoidance classrooms used distinctively different patterns of instructional and motivational discourse. High incidence of motivational support was uniquely characteristic of high-mastery/ low-avoidance classrooms, suggesting that mastery goals may include an affective component. Implications of the results for both theory and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Erratum to Satinder.

Reports an error in the article "Arousal Explains Difference in Avoidance Learning of Genetically Selected Rat Strains" by K. Paul Satinder (Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1977, Vol. 91, No. 6, pp. 1326-1336), one line was printed incorrectly. On page 1331, the last line of Table 2 reads as follows: RNA/Lu oneway 193 280. The line should be changed to read as follows: RHA/Lu oneway 193 280. (The following abstract originally appeared in record 1978-22592-001) Manipulated task complexity differences in avoidance learning of genetically selected strains of rats under dextroamphetamine (1, 2, and 4 mg/kg, ip). 288 Ss from RHA/Lu, RLA/Lu, RCA/Lu, RHA by RLA, and RLA by RHA strains were studied. With decreasing levels of task complexity the differences in avoidance learning between the selectively bred strains decreased significantly. Under the lower levels of complexity the strains reversed their relative positions in avoidance learning. Results are discussed in terms of inverted--U arousal function. The factors investigated in this study indicate that the differences in avoidance behavior of these lines of rats may be understood as deriving from genetically related different levels of arousal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Biphasic effects of ethanol on open-field activity: Sensitivity and tolerance in C57BL/6N and DBA/2N mice.

Male C57BL/6N (C57) and DBA/2N (DBA) inbred mice were found to differ in open-field behavior after an acute ip injection of ethanol and in the development of tolerance to repeated injections. DBA Ss showed only increased activity for 28 min after ethanol doses up to 2.67 g/kg when compared with saline-injected controls; C57 Ss showed dose-related increases in activity during the first 4 min, followed by dose-related decreases in activity. The effects endured for at least 60 min after injection in both strains. In a 3rd experiment, Ss were injected daily with saline or 2 g/kg ethanol and tested on Days 1, 5, 9, and 13 for open-field activity. On the 17th day, all Ss were tested after an ethanol injection; neither strain showed tolerance to the activity-stimulating effect of ethanol. Some evidence for tolerance to the effect of ethanol to reduce activity in C57's was found. In a 4th experiment, twice-daily injections of ethanol for 10 days produced marked tolerance to the depressant effect of an injection on the 11th day in C57 Ss; no tolerance to the stimulant effect of ethanol was found. DBA Ss injected twice daily for 19 days did not display tolerance when tested on Days 10 or 20, instead showing more marked stimulation of activity after ethanol than mice treated chronically with saline. Implications for the genetic control of responses to ethanol are discussed. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Domestication, sophistication, and avoidance in Norway rats.

Administered successive 1-way and 2-way avoidance tasks which included treatments of postweaning handling to docility, prior learning sophistication, and differential shock intensity. In this 2-stage paradigm, with 32 wild and 32 hooded Long-Evans rats, escape and avoidance behaviors of wild and laboratory Ss were indistinguishable. Sophistication in laboratory-learning experience and high shock contributed significantly to the performance of both wild and domestic Ss in 1-way, but not 2-way, avoidance. In contrast, effects of handling were apparently negligible. Findings do not support the notion of degeneracy of learning ability in the domesticated rat. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Factors modulating the effects of teleost telencephalon ablation on retention, relearning, and extinction of instrumental avoidance behavior.

Examined the nature of avoidance behavior in a total of 65 goldfish (Carassius auratus) in 2 experiments. In Exp I, a master/yoked design was used to determine the degree to which Pavlovian conditioning would generate acquisition of a shuttle response by 24 Ss. Results indicate that the sequence of signal-shock pairings experienced by the avoidance Ss was not in this situation sufficient to explain the development of the instrumental avoidance responding. In Exp II, the effects of 3 variables on the retention and extinction of the avoidance response were studied. First, unilateral lesions of the telencephalon produced a transient deficit from which the Ss recovered to normal levels. Retention of avoidance response after bilateral telencephalon ablation was impaired and never fully recovered with additional training. Second, this deficit was reduced under higher intensities of electric shock. Overtraining on the task before the ablation had only a nonsignificant enhancing effect on retention levels. Extinction was always poorer following ablation, independent of the type of ablation, intensity of shock, degree of overtraining, and terminal retention level of performance. (52 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interaction of environmental enrichment and genotype.

Assessed the effects of exposure to an enriched environment, from birth-38 days of age, using 3 behavioral tests: open field, exploration, and running wheels. 144 inbred mice from 3 strains (A/J, C3H/HeJ, and C57BL/10J) were used as Ss in a 3 * 2 * 2 factorial design: 3 strains, enriched and control treatment, and males and females. Significant main effects due to strain, treatment, and trials were found in open-field activity, exploration, and running-wheel activity. Main effects due to strain and trials were found in open-field defecation. Genotype interacted with treatment on 3 of the 5 dependent measures and interacted with trials on all measures. Coefficients of genetic determination for the various dependent measures were between .08 and .43. Results support the hypothesis that environmental enrichment increased activity and decreased exploration. (28 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Open-field and avoidance behavior after neostriatal lesions in male and female rats.

The behavioral effects of lesions of the anterodorsal or posteroventral parts of the caudate-putamen were studied in 2 experiments with a total of 115 male and 101 female adult albino Holtzman rats that were gonadectomized or left untreated prior to brain surgery. Anterodorsal (ADC) lesions consistently impaired acquisition of 1-way avoidance behavior and tended to interfere with the development of a 2-way avoidance response; comparable effects were observed in gonadectomized and intact Ss of both sexes. By contrast, ADC lesions increased activity in the open field only in intact females and increased rearing only in ovariectomized females. Posteroventral caudate (PVC) lesions caused transient aphagia and adipsia in both sexes but did not consistently affect open-field activity or the acquisition of 1-way avoidance responses by either sex. These lesions profoundly impaired acquisition of shuttle box avoidance responses by intact males. By contrast, castrated males and intact and ovariectomized females with PVC lesions avoided normally in the shuttle box. Results suggest that localization of behavioral functions within the striatum differs with the sex of the S, in part because of activational effects of gonadal hormones. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral effects of environmental enrichment in randomly bred mice.

Reared 212 randomly bred mice from birth in an enriched environment or in a standard control environment. Ss were tested for open-field activity and defecation, running wheel activity, exploration, and hoarding. After the hoarding tests all Ss were sacrificed and adrenal glands were removed and weighed. Significant main effects due to treatment were found on gross body weight at 38 days of age, open-field activity and defecation, running wheel activity measures, and exploration. Correlational analyses revealed that open-field activity was positively associated with exploratory behavior, and that the 2 activity measures were positively associated. In the control Ss, the running wheel measures were positively associated with hoarding performance. Results are discussed and compared with previous studies of environmental enrichment and mouse behavior. It is concluded that the effects of early enrichment upon open-field activity, running wheel activity, and exploration are well established. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of activity level in children.

Observed the open-field activity of 140 3-9 yr olds in a room divided into 4 parts, each of which contained a chair and a table with the same 5 toys. Ss participated in 2 15-min sessions, one with free-play instructions, the other with instructions to stay in 1 part of the room and play with a single toy. Parents of the Ss filled out a questionnaire version of the Werry-Weiss-Peters Activity Scale. Open-field activity decreased with age in almost perfectly monotonic fashion. Parents' activity ratings were also lower for older Ss. There were no significant sex differences on either the open-field measures or the parental ratings. Restrictive instructions decreased activity and toy-changing behavior in the open-field situation, but this effect was somewhat attenuated when restrictive instructions were the 1st ones given. A factor analysis of the ratings provided evidence for a number of independent components of activity in children. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)