Comparative semantics for flow of control in logic programming without logic

We study semantic issues concerning control flow notions in logic programming languages by exploring a two-stage approach. The first considers solely uninterpreted (or schematic) elementary actions, rather than operations such as unification, substitution generation, or refutation. Accordingly, logic is absent at this first stage. We provide a comparative survey of the semantics of a variety of control flow notions in (uninterpreted) logic programming languages including notions such as don't know versus don't care nondeterminism, the cut operator, and/or parallel logic programming, and the commit operator. In all cases considered, we develop operational and denotational models, and prove their equivalence. A central tool both in the definitions and in the equivalence proofs is Banach's theorem on (the uniqueness of) fixed points of contracting functions on complete metric spaces. The second stage of the approach proceeds by interpreting the elementary actions, first as arbitrary state transformations, and next by suitably instantiating the sets of states and of state transformations (and by articulating the way in which a logic program determines a set of recursive procedure declarations). The paper concentrates on the first stage. For the second stage, only a few hints are included. Furthermore, references to papers which supply details for the languages PROLOG and CONCURRENT PROLOG are provided.     

Continuity of operators on continuous and discrete time streams

We consider the semantics of networks processing streams of data from a complete metric space. We consider two types of data streams: those based on continuous time (used in networks of physical components and analog devices), and those based on discrete time (used in concurrent algorithms). The networks are both governed by global clocks and together model a huge range of systems. Previously, we have investigated these two types of networks separately. Here we combine their study in a unified theory of stream transformers, given as fixed points of equations. We begin to develop this theory by using the standard mathematical techniques of topology to prove certain computationally desirable properties of these semantic functions, notably continuity, which is significant for models of a physical system, according to Hadamard’s principle.     

Metric semantics from partial order semantics

In dealing with denotational semantics of programming languages partial orders resp. metric spaces have been used with great benefit in order to provide a meaning to recursive and repetitive constructs. This paper presents two methods to define a metric on a subset of a complete partial order such that is a complete metric spaces and the metric semantics on coincides with the partial order semantics on when the same semantic operators are used. The first method is to add a ‘length’ on a complete partial order which means a function of increasing power. The second is based on the ideas of [11] and uses pseudo rank orderings, i.e. monotone sequences of monotone functions . We show that SFP domains can be characterized as special kinds of rank orderded cpo's. We also discuss the connection between the Lawson topology and the topology induced by the metric. Received 11 July 1995 / 1 August 1996     

A compositional semantics of UML-RSDS

This paper provides a semantics for the UML-RSDS (Reactive System Development Support) subset of UML, using the real-time action logic (RAL) formalism. We show how this semantics can be used to resolve some ambiguities and omissions in UML semantics, and to support reasoning about specifications using the B formal method and tools. We use ‘semantic profiles’ to provide precise semantics for different semantic variation points of UML. We also show how RAL can be used to give a semantics to notations for real-time specification in UML. Unlike other approaches to UML semantics, which concentrate on the class diagram notation, our semantic representation has behaviour as a central element, and can be used to define semantics for use cases, state machines and interactions, in addition to class diagrams.     

融合语义资源和关键词的文本聚类

融合关键词形式的属性层知识可有效提高文本聚类的聚类质量,但融合关键词的簇中心初始化仍是一个开放性问题。为此,提出一种融合语义资源和关键词的文本聚类方法。通过Wikipedia语义识别文本集的主题,采用基于资源分配的网络推断策略,通过文献协同关系发现潜在语义相关性,以选择最能代表各主题的重要文档(初始簇中心),并利用软约束与测度学习相结合的策略融合关键词辅助文本聚类。在20Newsgourp文本集上的实验结果表明,与k-means和仅融合关键词的文本聚类方法相比,该方法可有效提升聚类质量,尤其在News_Different_3数据集上标准互信息最多可提升约20%。     

Synthesizing Ornamental Typefaces

We present a method for creating ornamental typeface images. Ornamental typefaces are a composite artwork made from the assemblage of images that carry similar semantics to words. These appealing word‐art works often attract the attention of more people and convey more meaningful information than general typefaces. However, traditional ornamental typefaces are usually created by skilled artists, which involves tedious manual processes, especially when searching for appropriate materials and assembling them. Hence, we aim to provide an easy way to create ornamental typefaces for novices. How to combine users' design intentions with image semantic and shape information to obtain readable and appealing ornamental typefaces is the key challenge to generate ornamental typefaces. To address this problem, we first provide a scribble‐based interface for users to segment the input typeface into strokes according to their design concepts. To ensure the consistency of the image semantics and stroke shape, we then define a semantic‐shape similarity metric to select a set of suitable images. Finally, to beautify the typeface structure, an optional optimal strategy is investigated. Experimental results and user studies show that the proposed algorithm effectively generates attractive and readable ornamental typefaces.     

Metric completion versus ideal completion

Complete partial orders have been used for a long time for defining semantics of programming languages. In the context of concurrency de Bakker and Zucker (1982) proposed a metric setting for handling concurrency, recursion and nontermination, which has proved to be very successful in many applications. Starting with a semantic domain D for ‘finite behaviour’ we investigate the relation between the ideal completion Idl(D) and the metric completion which are both suitable to model recursion and infinite behaviour. We also consider the properties of semantic operators.     

A layered semantics for a parallel object-oriented language

We develop a denotational semantics for POOL, a parallel object-oriented programming language. The main contribution of this semantics is an accurate mathematical model of the most important concept in object-oriented programming: the object. This is achieved by structuring the semantics in layers working at three different levels: for statements, objects and programs. For each of these levels we define a specialized mathematical domain of processes, which we use to assign a meaning to each language construct. This is done in the mathematical framework of complete metric spaces. We also define operators that translate between these domains. At the program level we give a precise definition of the observable input/output behaviour of a particular program, which could be used at a later stage to decide the issue of full abstractness. We illustrate our semantic techniques by first applying them to a toy language similar to CSP.This paper describes work done in ESPRIT Basic Research Action 3020,Integration.     

Meaning preservation in Example-based Machine Translation with structural semantics

The main tasks in Example-based Machine Translation (EBMT) comprise of source text decomposition, following with translation examples matching and selection, and finally adaptation and recombination of the target translation. As the natural language is ambiguous in nature, the preservation of source text’s meaning throughout these processes is complex and challenging. A structural semantics is introduced, as an attempt towards meaning-based approach to improve the EBMT system. The structural semantics is used to support deeper semantic similarity measurement and impose structural constraints in translation examples selection. A semantic compositional structure is derived from the structural semantics of the selected translation examples. This semantic compositional structure serves as a representation structure to preserve the consistency and integrity of the input sentence’s meaning structure throughout the recombination process. In this paper, an English to Malay EBMT system is presented to demonstrate the practical application of this structural semantics. Evaluation of the translation test results shows that the new translation framework based on the structural semantics has outperformed the previous EBMT framework.     

Towards action refinement for true concurrent real time

Action refinement is an essential operation in the design of concurrent systems, real-time or not. In this paper we develop a theory of action refinement in a real-time non-interleaving causality based setting, a timed extension of bundle event structures that allows for urgent interactions to model timeout. The syntactic action refinement operation is presented in a timed process algebra as incorporated in the internationally standardised specification language LOTOS. We show that the behaviour of the refined system can be inferred compositionally from the behaviour of the original system and from the behaviour of the processes substituted for actions with explicitly represented start points, that the timed versions of a linear-time equivalence, termed pomset trace equivalence, and a branching-time equivalence, termed history preserving bisimulation equivalence, are both congruences under the refinement, and that the syntactic and semantic action refinements developed coincide under these equivalence relations with respect to a metric denotational semantics. Therefore, our refinement operations behave well. They meet the commonly expected properties.Received: 9 January 2003     

Some results on set-valued contractions in abstract metric spaces

In this paper, the concept of contractive set-valued maps in the frame of abstract metric spaces is studied and the existence of fixed points for such maps is guaranteed under certain conditions. Consequently, several known fixed point results are either generalized or extended, including the corresponding recent fixed point results of Wardowski [D. Wardowski, Endpoints and fixed points of set-valued contractions in cone metric spaces, Nonlinear Anal. 71 (2009) 512-516] as well as Klim and Wardowski [D. Klim, D. Wardowski, Dynamic process and fixed points of set-valued nonlinear contractions in cone metric spaces, Nonlinear Anal. 71 (2009) 5170-5175]. Examples are given to show that our results are distinct from the existing ones.     

Learning Based Neural Similarity Metrics for Multimedia Data Mining

Multimedia data mining refers to pattern discovery, rule extraction and knowledge acquisition from multimedia database. Two typical tasks in multimedia data mining are of visual data classification and clustering in terms of semantics. Usually performance of such classification or clustering systems may not be favorable due to the use of low-level features for image representation, and also some improper similarity metrics for measuring the closeness between multimedia objects as well. This paper considers a problem of modeling similarity for semantic image clustering. A collection of semantic images and feed-forward neural networks are used to approximate a characteristic function of equivalence classes, which is termed as a learning pseudo metric (LPM). Empirical criteria on evaluating the goodness of the LPM are established. A LPM based k-Mean rule is then employed for the semantic image clustering practice, where two impurity indices, classification performance and robustness are used for performance evaluation. An artificial image database with 11 semantics is employed for our simulation studies. Results demonstrate the merits and usefulness of our proposed techniques for multimedia data mining.     

Interactive semantics

Much research pursues machine intelligence through better representation of semantics. What is semantics? People in different areas view semantics from different facets although it accompanies interaction through civilization. Some researchers believe that humans have some innate structure in mind for processing semantics. Then, what the structure is like? Some argue that humans evolve a structure for processing semantics through constant learning. Then, how the process is like? Humans have invented various symbol systems to represent semantics. Can semantics be accurately represented? Turing machines are good at processing symbols according to algorithms designed by humans, but they are limited in ability to process semantics and to do active interaction. Super computers and high-speed networks do not help solve this issue as they do not have any semantic worldview and cannot reflect themselves. Can future cyber-society have some semantic images that enable machines and individuals (humans and agents) to reflect themselves and interact with each other with knowing social situation through time? This paper concerns these issues in the context of studying an interactive semantics for the future cyber-society. It firstly distinguishes social semantics from natural semantics, and then explores the interactive semantics in the category of social semantics. Interactive semantics consists of an interactive system and its semantic image, which co-evolve and influence each other. The semantic worldview and interactive semantic base are proposed as the semantic basis of interaction. The process of building and explaining semantic image can be based on an evolving structure incorporating adaptive multi-dimensional classification space and self-organized semantic link network. A semantic lens is proposed to enhance the potential of the structure and help individuals build and retrieve semantic images from different facets, abstraction levels and scales through time.     

基于源代码扩展信息的细粒度缺陷定位方法

基于信息检索的缺陷定位技术,利用跨语言的语义相似性构造检索模型,通过缺陷报告定位源代码错误,具有方法直观、通用性强的特点.但是由于传统基于信息检索的缺陷定位方法将代码作为纯文本进行处理,只利用了源代码的词汇语义信息,导致在细粒度缺陷定位中面临候选代码语义匮乏产生的准确性低的问题,其结果有用性还有待改进.通过分析程序演化场景下代码改动与缺陷产生间的关系,提出一种基于源代码扩展信息的细粒度缺陷定位方法,以代码词汇语义显性信息及代码执行隐性信息共同丰富源代码语义实现细粒度缺陷定位.利用定位候选点的语义相关上下文丰富代码量,以代码执行中间形式的结构语义实现细粒度代码的可区分,同时以自然语言语义指导基于注意力机制的代码语言表征生成,实现细粒度代码与自然语言间的语义映射,从而实现细粒度缺陷定位方法FlowLocator.实验分析结果表明：与经典的IR缺陷定位方法相比,该方法定位准确性在Top-N排名、平均准确率及平均倒数排名上都有显著提高.     

BPMN 2.0编排的形式语义和分析

BPMN 2.0编排已成为描述业务流程间交互事实上的标准.BPMN 2.0编排面向流的特征,使之会产生控制流方面的语义错误.因此,检查编排语义正确性是BPMN 2.0编排建模工具所期望具有的功能.但是,BPMN 2.0标准规约中编排缺少形式语义及相应的分析技术,这阻碍了对BPMN 2.0编排的语义分析.本文提出了一种映射,用于将BPMN 2.0编排转换为工作流网,使用Petri网来形式定义BPMN 2.0编排的语义.借助Petri网的分析技术,这种定义的语义可用来分析BPMN 2.0编排的结构和控制流方面的错误.该映射和语义分析已被实现为一种工具.实验结果表明,这种形式化可以识别BPM AI过程模型库中编排的语义错误.     

基于内容的图象检索中的语义处理方法

基于内容的图象检索系统,其目标是最大限度地减小图象简单视觉特征与用户检索丰富语义之间的“语义鸿沟”,因此图象语义处理则成为基于内容的图象检索进一步发展的关键。为了使人们对基于内容的图象检索中的语义处理方法有个概略了解,首先从图象语义模型和图象语义提取方法这两个方面对利用语义进行图象检索的研究状况进行了总结,并将图象语义模型概括为图象语义知识、图象语义层次模型和语义抽取模型等3个主要组成部分;然后将图象语义提取方法分为用户交互、将查询请求作为语义模板、对象及其空间关系、场景和行为语义及情感语义等类别,同时对其中有代表性的方法进行了详细的分析,还指出了其局限性;最后从对象建模和识别、语义抽取规则和用户检索模型3个方面,阐明了实现图象语义处理所面临的问题,并提出了一些初步的解决思路。     

On open‐set lattices and some of their applications in semantics

In this article, we present the theory of Kripke semantics, along with the mathematical framework and applications of Kripke semantics. We take the Kripke‐Sato approach to define the knowledge operator in relation to Hintikka's possible worlds model, which is an application of the semantics of intuitionistic logic and modal logic. The applications are interesting from the viewpoint of agent interactives and process interaction. We propose (i) an application of possible worlds semantics, which enables the evaluation of the truth value of a conditional sentence without explicitly defining the operator “→” (implication), through clustering on the space of events (worlds) using the notion of neighborhood; and (ii) a semantical approach to treat discrete dynamic process using Kripke‐Beth semantics. Starting from the topological approach, we define the measure‐theoretical machinery, in particular, we adopt the methods developed in stochastic process—mainly the martingale—to our semantics; this involves some Boolean algebraic (BA) manipulations. The clustering on the space of events (worlds), using the notion of neighborhood, enables us to define an accessibility relation that is necessary for the evaluation of the conditional sentence. Our approach is by taking the neighborhood as an open set and looking at topological properties using metric space, in particular, the so‐called ε‐ball; then, we can perform the implication by computing Euclidean distance, whenever we introduce a certain enumerative scheme to transform the semantic objects into mathematical objects. Thus, this method provides an approach to quantify semantic notions. Combining with modal operators K_i operating on E set, it provides a more‐computable way to recognize the “indistinguishability” in some applications, e.g., electronic catalogue. Because semantics used in this context is a local matter, we also propose the application of sheaf theory for passing local information to global information. By looking at Kripke interpretation as a function with values in an open‐set lattice ??_U, which is formed by stepwise verification process, we obtain a topological space structure. Now, using the measure‐theoretical approach by taking the Borel set and Borel function in defining measurable functions, this can be extended to treat the dynamical aspect of processes; from the stochastic process, considered as a family of random variables over a measure space (the probability space triple), we draw two strong parallels between Kripke semantics and stochastic process (mainly martingales): first, the strong affinity of Kripke‐Beth path semantics and time path of the process; and second, the treatment of time as parametrization to the dynamic process using the technique of filtration, adapted process, and progressive process. The technique provides very effective manipulation of BA in the form of random variables and σ‐subalgebra under the cover of measurable functions. This enables us to adopt the computational algorithms obtained for stochastic processes to path semantics. Besides, using the technique of measurable functions, we indeed obtain an intrinsic way to introduce the notion of time sequence. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

融合语义角色的神经机器翻译

近年来,深度学习取得了重大突破,融合深度学习技术的神经机器翻译逐渐取代统计机器翻译,成为学术界主流的机器翻译方法。然而,传统的神经机器翻译将源端句子看作一个词序列,没有考虑句子的隐含语义信息,使得翻译结果与源端语义不一致。为了解决这个问题,一些语言学知识如句法、语义等被相继应用于神经机器翻译,并取得了不错的实验效果。语义角色也可用于表达句子语义信息,在神经机器翻译中具有一定的应用价值。文中提出了两种融合句子语义角色信息的神经机器翻译编码模型,一方面,在句子词序列中添加语义角色标签,标记每段词序列在句子中担当的语义角色,语义角色标签与源端词汇共同构成句子词序列;另一方面,通过构建源端句子的语义角色树,获取每个词在该语义角色树中的位置信息,将其作为特征向量与词向量进行拼接,构成含语义角色信息的词向量。在大规模中-英翻译任务上的实验结果表明,相较基准系统,文中提出的两种方法分别在所有测试集上平均提高了0.9和0.72个BLEU点,在其他评测指标如TER(Translation Edit Rate)和RIBES(Rank-based Intuitive Bilingual Evaluation Score)上也有不同程度的性能提升。进一步的实验分析显示,相较基准系统,文中提出的融合语义角色的神经机器翻译编码模型具有更佳的长句翻译效果和翻译充分性。     

The operational semantics of user-defined relationships in object oriented database systems

In semantic data models, abstract relationship (e.g. generalization, aggregation, etc.) semantics are defined, specifying how insertion, deletion and modification operations made at a higher level of abstraction can affect the objects abstracted over and vice versa. These semantics, also known as structural constraints, are expressed through so-called update rules. This perspective has been somewhat lost in most object-oriented systems, where user-defined relationships are supported as simple pointers and their semantics are embedded, distributed and replicated within the operations accessing these pointers. This paper inherits and extends the treatment of relationships found in semantic data models to behavioural object-oriented models by presenting an approach to uniformly capture the update rules for user-defined relationships. The stress is not on supporting relationships as first-class objects, but on describing their update rules (or operational semantics) through a set of constructors namely, reaction, anticipation, delegation and exception. The approach has been borne out by an implementation in an active object-oriented database system.