热处理对Ti2AlNb线性摩擦焊接头组织与硬度的影响

对Ti₂AlNb合金进行了线性摩擦焊试验以及焊后热处理研究. 着重分析了Ti₂AlNb合金线性摩擦焊接头焊合区,热力影响区的显微组织特点以及组织演变规律,结合焊后热处理,探讨了热处理温度对接头的影响规律. 试验结果表明,采用线性摩擦焊可实现Ti₂AlNb合金可靠连接,接头无微裂纹、孔洞等缺陷. 焊态Ti₂AlNb合金接头的焊合区为亚稳态β组织和极少量的变形α₂相,热力影响区含变形α₂相和O相,以及亚稳态β相. 热处理后,针状O相在亚稳态β相中析出,并随着热处理温度升高(从700 ~ 900 ℃)而长大. 700 ℃热处理后,接头显微硬度明显升高,但随着热处理温度的升高,显微硬度下降.     

Multiphysics Modeling and Simulations of Mil A46100 Armor-Grade Martensitic Steel Gas Metal Arc Welding Process

A multiphysics computational model has been developed for the conventional Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) joining process and used to analyze butt-welding of MIL A46100, a prototypical high-hardness armor martensitic steel. The model consists of five distinct modules, each covering a specific aspect of the GMAW process, i.e., (a) dynamics of welding-gun behavior; (b) heat transfer from the electric arc and mass transfer from the electrode to the weld; (c) development of thermal and mechanical fields during the GMAW process; (d) the associated evolution and spatial distribution of the material microstructure throughout the weld region; and (e) the final spatial distribution of the as-welded material properties. To make the newly developed GMAW process model applicable to MIL A46100, the basic physical-metallurgy concepts and principles for this material have to be investigated and properly accounted for/modeled. The newly developed GMAW process model enables establishment of the relationship between the GMAW process parameters (e.g., open circuit voltage, welding current, electrode diameter, electrode-tip/weld distance, filler-metal feed speed, and gun travel speed), workpiece material chemistry, and the spatial distribution of as-welded material microstructure and properties. The predictions of the present GMAW model pertaining to the spatial distribution of the material microstructure and properties within the MIL A46100 weld region are found to be consistent with general expectations and prior observations.     

Ti-22Al-27Nb合金线性摩擦焊接头组织与显微硬度分析

对Ti-22Al-27Nb合金进行了线性摩擦焊及热处理试验,并对热处理前后焊接接头的微观组织和显微硬度进行测量分析. 结果表明,利用线性摩擦焊方法焊接Ti-22Al-27Nb合金得到的接头无焊接缺陷. 焊态下,焊缝区形成了B2单相区组织. 热力影响区为B2 + O + α₂相三相区,出现等轴α₂相,针状O相几乎消失. 热处理后在焊缝区析出板条状O相和针状O相,热力影响区为O相均匀分布的两相区. 母材处的显微硬度值最低约为300 HV,随着向焊缝靠近,显微硬度值逐渐增加,焊缝中心达到最大值354 HV. 热处理后,由于板条O相和针状O相的沉淀析出,使焊缝中心显微硬度急剧增加.     

Process Modeling of Ti-6Al-4V Linear Friction Welding (LFW)

A fully coupled thermomechanical finite-element analysis of the linear friction welding (LFW) process is combined with the basic physical metallurgy of Ti-6Al-4V to predict microstructure and mechanical properties within the LFW joints (as a function of the LFW process parameters). A close examination of the experimental results reported in the open literature revealed that the weld region consists of a thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ) and a heat-affected zone (HAZ) and that the material mechanical properties are somewhat more inferior in the HAZ. Taking this observation into account, a model for microstructure-evolution during LFW was developed and parameterized for the Ti-6Al-4V material residing in the HAZ. Specifically, this model addresses the problem of temporal evolution of the prior ??-phase grain size (the dominant microstructural parameter in the HAZ) during the LFW process. This model is next combined with the well-established property versus microstructure correlations in Ti-6Al-4V to predict the overall structural performance of the LFW joint. The results obtained are found to be in reasonably good agreement with their experimental counterparts suggesting that the present computational approach may be used to guide the selection of the LFW process parameters to optimize the structural performance of the LFW joints.     

Linear friction welding of a near-β titanium alloy

The linear friction welding (LFW) behaviour of near-β titanium alloy Ti-5Al-5V-5Mo-3Cr (Ti-5553) was investigated by varying the processing conditions of frequency and axial pressure. The examined mechanical properties of the welded material included microhardness and tensile properties. The maximum strains experienced by the material during LFW for each set of welding parameters were estimated based on the process parameters and then evaluated using Aramis, a three-dimensional optical deformation measurement system. The LFWed Ti-5553 was examined with electron backscatter diffraction techniques to relate the texture and phase changes to the thermomechanical conditions. Characterisation of the welds included analysis of the microstructural features of the weld region and the thermomechanically affected zone in relation to the parent material.     

Internal residual stress measurement on linear friction welding of titanium alloy plates with contour method

The internal residual stress within a TC17 titanium alloy joint welded by linear friction welding (LFW) was measured by the contour method, which is a relatively new and destructive technique to obtain a full map of internal residual stress. The specimen was first cut into two parts; the out-of-plane displacement contour formed by the release of the residual stress was then measured; finally, taking the measured contour of the cut plane as the boundary conditions, a linear elastic finite element analysis was carried out to calculate the corresponding distribution of residual stress normal to the cut plane. The internal stress distribution of the TC17 titanium alloy LFW joint was also analyzed. The results show that the tensile residual stress in the TC17 LFW weld is mainly present within a region about 12 mm from the weld centerline; the peak tensile residual stress occurs at the weld centerline and reaches 360 MPa (about one third of the yield strength of TC17 alloy); within the weld zone of the TC17 LFW weld, the through-thickness stress is not uniform, and the internal stress is larger than that near the top or bottom surface.     

A Combined Experimental/Computational Analysis of the Butt-Friction-Stir-Welded AA2139-T8 Joints

Combined experimental and computational investigations are carried out of the mechanical properties of materials residing in different weld zones of friction stir-welded (FSW) joints of thick plates of AA2139-T8. The experimental portion of the work comprised (a) identification of the weld zones within the FSW joints, through the use of optical-microscopy characterization of a transverse section; (b) validation of the weld zones identified in (a) via the generation of a micro-hardness field over the same transverse section; (c) extracting and subsequently testing miniature tensile specimens from different weld zones; and (d) extracting and testing a larger-size tensile specimen spanning transversely the FSW weld. The computational portion of the work comprised (i) validation of the mechanical properties, as determined experimentally using the miniature tensile specimens, of the material residing within different zones of the FSW joint; and (ii) clarification of the benefits yielded by the knowledge of the local material properties within the FSW joint. These benefits arise from the fact that (a) joint mechanical properties are generally inferior to those of the base metal; (b) the width of the weld in thick metallic-armor is often comparable to the armor thickness, and therefore may represent a significant portion of the armor exposed-surface area; and (c) modeling of the weld-material structural response under loading requires the availability of high-fidelity/validated material constitutive models, and the development of such models requires knowledge of the local weld-material mechanical properties.     

Computational Analysis of Material Flow During Friction Stir Welding of AA5059 Aluminum Alloys

Workpiece material flow and stirring/mixing during the friction stir welding (FSW) process are investigated computationally. Within the numerical model of the FSW process, the FSW tool is treated as a Lagrangian component while the workpiece material is treated as an Eulerian component. The employed coupled Eulerian/Lagrangian computational analysis of the welding process was of a two-way thermo-mechanical character (i.e., frictional-sliding/plastic-work dissipation is taken to act as a heat source in the thermal-energy balance equation) while temperature is allowed to affect mechanical aspects of the model through temperature-dependent material properties. The workpiece material (AA5059, solid-solution strengthened and strain-hardened aluminum alloy) is represented using a modified version of the classical Johnson-Cook model (within which the strain-hardening term is augmented to take into account for the effect of dynamic recrystallization) while the FSW tool material (AISI H13 tool steel) is modeled as an isotropic linear-elastic material. Within the analysis, the effects of some of the FSW key process parameters are investigated (e.g., weld pitch, tool tilt-angle, and the tool pin-size). The results pertaining to the material flow during FSW are compared with their experimental counterparts. It is found that, for the most part, experimentally observed material-flow characteristics are reproduced within the current FSW-process model.     

TC4钛合金线性摩擦焊接头组织和力学性能

文中阐述了线性摩擦焊的原理、特点,并针对TC4钛合金线性摩擦焊接头组织和力学性能进行了研究.对比分析TC4钛合金线性摩擦焊接头焊态和焊后热处理态的接头组织和力学性能.结果表明,焊接接头共分为母材、热力影响区和焊缝区三部分;TC4钛合金的接头(包括焊态和焊后热处理态)抗拉强度和屈服强度均达到母材的90%以上;焊缝中心的硬度值最高,焊后热处理能使接头的硬度分布更加均匀.     

Characterization of Dissimilar Linear Friction Welds of α-β Titanium Alloys

Characterization of dissimilar linear friction weld (LFW) of Ti-alloys has been carried out. The microstructure of a Ti-64 with Ti-6246 weld was analyzed using scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The microtexture of the weld was examined using electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) and the microhardness was measured. The dissimilar LFW weld shows an interface at the central weld zone (CWZ) with strong contrast. The element distribution measured using energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer suggests that only limited atomic diffusion occurred during welding. In the weld region, the hardness of Ti-64 shows an increase while that of Ti-6246 shows a decrease, compared with the respective parent materials in as-welded condition. After post-weld heat treatment, a hardness increase was observed in Ti-6246, while Ti-64 shows no significant hardness increase. Although the EBSD pattern quality is poor in the CWZ at the as-welded condition, the pattern quality of the post-weld heat-treated sample shows that both the Ti-64 and Ti-6246 have similar texture.     

焊接参数对搅拌摩擦焊搅拌区材料融合的影响

用率相关本构模型模拟了搅拌摩擦焊接过程,研究了焊接参数的变化对搅拌摩擦焊接构件横截面上材料变形的影响.通过对不同过程参数下等效塑性应变的研究,分析了搅拌区及热力影响区内焊缝中心线两侧材料的融合情况,根据变形分布,从理论上判断焊接参数的变化对焊接质量产生的影响.结果表明,在靠近焊接构件下部材料的融合随着搅拌头转速的增加和焊速的减小趋于良好,但是搅拌头转速过高有可能导致焊接缺陷的产生.     

Cu-Cr-Zr合金连续驱动摩擦焊接头热力演变

采用热电偶—蓝牙技术测量了Cu-Cr-Zr合金连续驱动摩擦焊接头特征点的温度,并研究接头温度与组织演变的关系. 结果表明,各特征点温度均存在一定程度的滞后现象;沿工件径向, 2/3R区温度最高;沿工件轴向,摩擦界面处温度最高;旋转工件的温度略低于移动工件. 在热力耦合作用下,接头焊合区形成细小的等轴晶粒,热力影响区晶粒被不同程度拉长,呈塑性流线.从轴心到外径动态再结晶区的宽度增加,晶粒粗化,而与其相邻的热力影响区径向塑性流动的趋势减小. 此外,与旋转端相比,移动端接头具有较高的峰值温度和再结晶峰值宽度,所对应的焊合区晶粒也较为粗大.     

3D modelling of Ti–6Al–4V linear friction welds

Linear friction welding (LFW) is a solid-state joining process that significantly reduces manufacturing costs when fabricating Ti–6Al–4V aircraft components. This article describes the development of a novel 3D LFW process model for joining Ti–6Al–4V. Displacement histories were taken from experiments and used as modelling inputs; herein is the novelty of the approach, which resulted in decreased computational time and memory storage requirements. In general, the models captured the experimental weld phenomena and showed that the thermo-mechanically affected zone and interface temperature are reduced when the workpieces are oscillated along the shorter of the two interface contact dimensions. Moreover, the models showed that unbonded regions occur at the corners of the weld interface, which are eliminated by increasing the burn-off.     

超声振动对6061-T4铝合金搅拌摩擦焊接头组织和性能的影响

利用自主研制的试验装置,通过工具头将超声振动能量施加在搅拌头前方的待焊工件上,研究了超声振动能量对减少焊接缺陷、改善搅拌摩擦焊接头组织和力学性能的影响.对6 mm厚度6061-T4铝合金板进行了超声振动强化搅拌摩擦焊工艺试验,并与相同工艺条件下的常规搅拌摩擦焊进行了对比.结果表明,超声振动能够减小焊速/转速比较大时的焊缝内部隧道型缺陷,增大材料对接混合区宽度和焊核区体积,细化焊核区和热力影响区微观组织,提高接头抗拉强度和焊核区显微硬度.     

Ballistic-Failure Mechanisms in Gas Metal Arc Welds of Mil A46100 Armor-Grade Steel: A Computational Investigation

In our recent work, a multi-physics computational model for the conventional gas metal arc welding (GMAW) joining process was introduced. The model is of a modular type and comprises five modules, each designed to handle a specific aspect of the GMAW process, i.e.: (i) electro-dynamics of the welding-gun; (ii) radiation-/convection-controlled heat transfer from the electric-arc to the workpiece and mass transfer from the filler-metal consumable electrode to the weld; (iii) prediction of the temporal evolution and the spatial distribution of thermal and mechanical fields within the weld region during the GMAW joining process; (iv) the resulting temporal evolution and spatial distribution of the material microstructure throughout the weld region; and (v) spatial distribution of the as-welded material mechanical properties. In the present work, the GMAW process model has been upgraded with respect to its predictive capabilities regarding the spatial distribution of the mechanical properties controlling the ballistic-limit (i.e., penetration-resistance) of the weld. The model is upgraded through the introduction of the sixth module in the present work in recognition of the fact that in thick steel GMAW weldments, the overall ballistic performance of the armor may become controlled by the (often inferior) ballistic limits of its weld (fusion and heat-affected) zones. To demonstrate the utility of the upgraded GMAW process model, it is next applied to the case of butt-welding of a prototypical high-hardness armor-grade martensitic steel, MIL A46100. The model predictions concerning the spatial distribution of the material microstructure and ballistic-limit-controlling mechanical properties within the MIL A46100 butt-weld are found to be consistent with prior observations and general expectations.     

超声振动对6061-T4铝合金搅拌摩擦焊接头组织和性能的影响

利用自主研制的试验装置,通过工具头将超声振动能量施加在搅拌头前方的待焊工件上,研究了超声振动能量对减少焊接缺陷、改善搅拌摩擦焊接头组织和力学性能的影响.对6 mm厚度6061-T4铝合金板进行了超声振动强化搅拌摩擦焊工艺试验,并与相同工艺条件下的常规搅拌摩擦焊进行了对比.结果表明,超声振动能够减小焊速/转速比较大时的焊缝内部隧道型缺陷,增大材料对接混合区宽度和焊核区体积,细化焊核区和热力影响区微观组织,提高接头抗拉强度和焊核区显微硬度.     

Microstructural investigation of friction stir welded 7050-T651 aluminium

The grain structure, dislocation density and second phase particles in various regions including the dynamically recrystallized zone (DXZ), thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ), and heat affected zone (HAZ) of a friction stir weld aluminum alloy 7050-T651 were investigated and compared with the unaffected base metal. The various regions were studied in detail to better understand the microstructural evolution during friction stir welding (FSW). The microstructural development in each region was a strong function of the local thermo-mechanical cycle experienced during welding. Using the combination of structural characteristics observed in each weld region, a new dynamic recrystallization model has been proposed. The precipitation phenomena in different weld regions are also discussed.     

低功率激光-双电弧焊接钛合金中厚板工艺及机理

采用单钨极惰性气体保护焊(single tungsten inert gas welding,STIG焊)、双钨极惰性气体保护焊(double tungsten inert gas welding,DTIG焊)、激光-STIG电弧(L-STIG)复合焊和激光-DTIG电弧(L-DTIG)复合焊4种方式对6 mm 厚TA2钛合金进行对接焊试验,实现单面焊双面成形. 结果表明,L-DTIG复合焊的电弧能量更为集中,焊接速度可达680 mm/min. L-DTIG复合焊的热输入为605.5 J/mm,仅是DTIG焊的35.5%和L-STIG复合焊的59.0%. L-DTIG复合焊接头的焊缝区晶粒细小,显微硬度可达229.5 HV. 拉伸试样在母材处断裂,接头抗拉强度优于母材. 加入激光后,L-DTIG复合焊的电弧等离子体中心导电区在xOz和yOz平面电弧分别收缩51.0%,45.5%,电弧根部收缩75.0%. 测得L-DTIG复合焊热源在工件上的电弧压力为3 465 Pa,分别是DTIG焊和L-STIG复合焊的4.17和2.25倍. 较高的电弧收缩比和电弧压力可显著提高焊接效率,降低焊接热输入.     

异质钛合金线性摩擦焊接头微观组织

为了探明TC11与TC17异质钛合金线性摩擦焊接头微观组织形成机制,采用光学显微镜和扫描电镜研究接头不同区域的微观组织.结果表明,线性摩擦焊接头由TC11一侧的热力影响区(TMAZ)、TC11一侧的焊缝区、TC17一侧的焊缝区和TC17一侧的TMAZ所组成.在TMAZ未发现有动态再结晶发生,而材料的相变与变形是同时进行的.在焊缝区内发生了动态再结晶过程,摩擦停止后在摩擦界面上形成初生β共生晶粒.在振幅为3 mm、频率为40 Hz、摩擦压力为66.7 MPa条件下,随着摩擦时间的延长,初生β相动态再结晶晶粒尺寸和α相片层宽度增加.     

On the evolution of local material properties and residual stress in a three-pass SA508 steel weld

In multi-pass welds, the development of residual stress generally depends on the response of the weld metal, heat-affected zone (HAZ) and nearby parent material to complex thermo-mechanical cycles. Here, the evolution of local material properties and residual stress was investigated for each of these zones during the manufacture of a three-pass groove weld in SA508 steel. Residual stress distributions were measured by neutron diffraction for a sample in which only one weld bead had been deposited, and again for a completed three-pass weld. The evolution of material properties was also characterised by measuring local hardness and conducting tensile tests on small coupons that were extracted from the same welded specimens. Overall, the addition of subsequent weld passes resulted in lower peak tensile residual stresses in the weld as a whole, softening of the HAZ, modest cyclic hardening in nearby parent metal, and some softening in the low-carbon weld metal.