Influence of Spray Materials and Their Surface Oxidation on the Critical Velocity in Cold Spraying

The critical velocity is an important parameter in cold spraying, which determines the deposition efficiency under a given spray condition. The critical velocity depends not only on materials types, but also on particle temperature and oxidation conditions. In the present paper, three types of materials including copper, 316L stainless steel, Monel alloy were used to deposit coatings by cold spraying. The critical velocities of spray materials were determined using a novel measurement method. The oxygen content in the three powders was changed by isothermal oxidation at ambient atmosphere. The effect of oxygen content on the critical velocity was examined. It was found that the critical velocity in cold spray was significantly influenced by particle oxidation condition besides materials properties. The critical velocity of Cu particles changed from about 300 m/s to over 610 m/s with the change of oxygen content in powder. It is evident that the materials properties influence the critical velocity more remarkable at low oxygen content than at high oxygen content. The results suggest that with a severely oxidized powder the critical velocity tends to be dominated by oxide on the powder surface rather than materials properties.     

Bonding mechanism in cold gas spraying

Cold gas spraying is a relatively new coating process by which coatings can be produced without significant heating of the sprayed powder. In contrast to the well-known thermal spray processes such as flame, arc, and plasma spraying, in cold spraying there is no melting of particles prior to impact on the substrate. The adhesion of particles in this process is due solely to their kinetic energy upon impact. Experimental investigations show that successful bonding is achieved only above a critical particle velocity, whose value depends on the temperature and the thermomechanical properties of the sprayed material. This paper supplies a hypothesis for the bonding of particles in cold gas spraying, by making use of numerical modelling of the deformation during particle impact. The results of modelling are assessed with respect to the experimentally evaluated critical velocities, impact morphologies and strengths of coatings. The analysis demonstrates that bonding can be attributed to adiabatic shear instabilities which occur at the particle surface at or beyond the critical velocity. On the basis of this criterion, critical velocities can be predicted and used to optimise process parameters for various materials.     

Correlation of Fracture Mode Transition of Ceramic Particle with Critical Velocity for Successful Deposition in Vacuum Kinetic Spraying Process

Vacuum kinetic spraying (VKS) is a promising room-temperature process to fabricate dense ceramic films. However, unfortunately, the deposition mechanism is still not clearly understood. In this respect, the critical conditions for successful deposition were investigated. Based on simulation and microstructural analysis, it was found that as the particle velocity increased, fracture mode transition from tensile fracture to shear fracture occurred and particle did not bounce off anymore above a certain velocity. Simultaneously, particle underwent shock-induced plasticity and dynamic fragmentation. The plasticity assisted to prevent the fragments from rebounding by spending the excessive kinetic energy and fragmentation is essential for fragment bonding and film growth considering that the deposition rate increased as the fraction of fragmentation increased. Accordingly, plasticity and fragmentation take a crucial role for particle deposition. In this respect, the velocity that fracture mode transition occurs is newly defined as critical velocity. Consequently, for successful deposition, the particle should at least exceed the critical velocity and thus it is very crucial for film fabrication in VKS process at room temperature.     

FeAl and Mo–Si–B intermetallic coatings prepared by thermal spraying

FeAl and Mo–Si–B intermetallic coatings for elevated temperature environmental resistance were prepared using high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) and air plasma spray (APS) techniques. For both coating types, the effect of coating parameters (spray particle velocity and temperature) on the microstructure and physical properties of the coatings was assessed. Fe–24Al (wt%) coatings were prepared using HVOF thermal spraying at spray particle velocities varying from 540 to 700 m/s. Mo–13.4Si–2.6B coatings were prepared using APS at particle velocities of 180 and 350 m/s. Residual stresses in the HVOF FeAl coatings were compressive, while stresses in the APS Mo–Si–B coatings were tensile. In both cases, residual stresses became more compressive with increasing spray particle velocity due to increased peening imparted by the spray particles. The hardness and elastic moduli of FeAl coatings also increased with increasing particle velocity. For Mo–Si–B coatings, plasma spraying at 180 m/s resulted in significant oxidation of the spray particles and conversion of the T1 phase into amorphous silica and -Mo. The T1 phase was retained after spraying at 350 m/s.     

The Influence of Powder Particle Velocity and Microstructure on the Properties of Cold Sprayed Copper Coatings

No literature exists on the influence of the velocity of Cu powder particles (during cold spraying) on the properties of the coatings like porosity, hardness, electrical conductivity, residual stress, and microstructure. Similarly, though the occurrence of dynamic recrystallization in the Cu powder particle during its deformation under the cold sprayed process has been well documented, its influence on the properties of the coating has not been studied. In this study, it is shown that while porosity of the coating is determined directly by the powder particle velocity, the other properties like hardness, electrical conductivity, and residual stress are determined not only by the particle velocity which depends on stagnation pressure and preheating temperature of the air (process gas) but also additionally on preheating temperature of air per se. The extent of powder particle fragmentation and dynamic recrystallization as a function of particle velocity has been quantified in terms of the grain boundary area fraction and the influence of the latter parameter on the coating properties has also been presented.     

Reactive Atmospheric Plasma Spraying of AlN Coatings: Influence of Aluminum Feedstock Particle Size

Feedstock powder characteristics (size distribution, morphology, shape, specific mass, and injection rate) are considered to be one of the key factors in controlling plasma-sprayed coatings microstructure and properties. The influence of feedstock powder characteristics to control the reaction and coatings microstructure in reactive plasma spraying process (RPS) is still unclear. This study, investigated the influence of feedstock particle size in RPS of aluminum nitride (AlN) coatings, through plasma nitriding of aluminum (Al) feedstock powders. It was possible to fabricate AlN-based coatings through plasma nitriding of all kinds of Al powders in atmospheric plasma spray (APS) process. The nitriding ratio was improved with decreasing the particle size of feedstock powder, due to improving the nitriding reaction during flight. However, decreasing the particle size of feedstock powder suppressed the coatings thickness. Due to the loss of the powder during the injection, the excessive vaporization of fine Al particles and the completing nitriding reaction of some fine Al particles during flight. The feedstock particle size directly affects on the nitriding, melting, flowability, and the vaporization behaviors of Al powders during spraying. It concluded that using smaller particle size powders is useful for improving the nitriding ratio and not suitable for fabrication thick AlN coatings in reactive plasma spray process. To fabricate thick AlN coatings through RPS, enhancing the nitriding reaction of Al powders with large particle size during spraying is required.     

冷喷涂制备CuZn35涂层结构及耐摩擦磨损性能

目的 采用高压冷喷涂技术制备低氧化、致密、耐摩擦磨损的CuZn35涂层,并探究加速气体温度对CuZn35涂层性能的影响。方法 利用高压冷喷涂技术在铝板上沉积CuZn35涂层,探究加速气体温度对冷喷涂CuZn35涂层微观结构及耐摩擦磨损性能的影响。在载荷为2 N时,在旋转式摩擦磨损试验仪上进行试验,对比铸态CuZn35材料的耐磨性能,评估在压力为5 MPa,加速气体温度为400、600、800℃条件下冷喷涂制备的CuZn35涂层的耐磨性能。通过光学显微镜(OM)、扫描电镜(SEM)、三维轮廓仪(3D Profiler)对涂层的微观结构和磨损表面形貌进行分析。结果 当冷喷涂加速气体温度从400℃升至800℃时,CuZn35涂层内部颗粒的变形量不断增大,颗粒之间形成了较好的结合,孔隙率从2.67%降至0.5%以下,硬度从200HV0.3升至242HV0.3,涂层磨损率从3.67 mm³/(N·mm)降至1.80 mm³/(N·mm)。在温度为800℃条件下制备的CuZn35涂层表现出最优的耐摩擦磨损性能,在磨损过程中涂层材料未发生明显的块状脱落现象...     

等离子喷涂ZrO2热障涂层工艺参数优化设计

为了深入研究等离子喷涂ZrO2粒子的飞行特征与涂层性能之间的关系，采用三水平四因素正交试验法对主气、辅气、电流及喷涂距离等4个主要参数进行了优化设计，并采用DPV2000热喷涂在线监测仪测定了ZrO2粒子的飞行特征参数，通过IA32定量金相分析软件对涂层的孔隙率进行了测试。结果表明，影响ZrO2粒子温度的主要因素为主气和辅气，影响ZrO2粒子飞行速度的主要因素为喷涂距离和辅气。     

Structure of plasma-sprayed zirconia coatings tailored by controlling the temperature and velocity of the sprayed particles

The correlation between particle temperature and velocity with the structure of plasma-sprayed zirconia coatings is studied to determine which parameter most strongly influences the coating structure. The particle temperature and velocity are measured using an integrated optical monitoring system positioned normal to the spraying axis. The total porosity, angular crack distribution, and thermal diffusivity are correlated with the particle temperature and velocity. Results show that the temperature of the sprayed particles has a larger effect on the coating properties than the velocity in the conditions investigated.     

Deposition of WC-Co Coatings by a Novel High Pressure HVOF

WC-Co coatings are primarily deposited using the high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) spray process. However, the decomposition and decarburization of carbides during spraying affects the wear performance and fracture toughness of the coatings. In this paper, a novel high pressure HVOF was developed to achieve lower particle temperature and higher particle velocity. It enables combustion chamber pressures up to 3.0 MPa. The influence of combustion chamber pressure and oxygen/fuel ratio on WC-Co particle velocity and temperature levels were analyzed by numerical simulation. The experimental results show that the combustion chamber pressure and the oxygen/fuel ratio have a significant influence on particle velocity and melting degree, as well as on the microstructure and microhardness of the coating. High velocity WC-Co particles in different states, i.e., molten, semi-molten, and non-molten can be readily obtained by changing the spraying conditions. A comparison to the conventional JP-5000 was also performed.     

In situ measurement of residual stresses and elastic moduli in thermal sprayed coatings: Part 2: processing effects on properties of Mo coatings

Residual stresses and mechanical properties of plasma sprayed coatings play a critical role in their functionality and lifetime. These can be influenced by modification of spraying parameters. Among the most important parameters are the deposition temperature, particle temperature and velocity and deposition rate. Using the in situ thermo-elastic curvature method described in Part 1 of this paper, their effects on the stresses and moduli of plasma sprayed molybdenum were investigated. The results for quenching, thermal, and residual stresses as well as Young’s moduli are presented and discussed with respect to the spraying parameters and material properties. The most influential factors are determined and means for property modification using this technique are described. The development of the in situ approach along with the ability to measure elastic modulus and residual stresses enables capturing the quality and integrity of the deposit. This will allow for future downstream process control based on materials characteristics.     

Influence of Ceramic Powder Size on Process of Cermet Coating Formation by Cold Spray

Influence of the ceramic particle size on the process of formation of cermet coatings by cold spray is experimentally studied. A specially developed nozzle with separate injection of ceramic and metal powders into the gas stream is used in the experiments. The results obtained demonstrate that fine ceramic powders (Al₂O₃, SiC) produce a strong activation effect on the process of spraying soft metal (Al, Cu) and increase deposition efficiency of the metal component of the mixture compared to the pure metal spraying. At the same time, coarse ceramic powder produces a strong erosion effect that considerably reduces coating mass growth and deposition efficiency of the metal component. It is experimentally shown that the addition of fine hard powder to soft metals as Al and Cu allows to significantly reduce the “critical” temperature (the minimum gas stagnation temperature at which a nonzero particle deposition is observed) for spraying these metals.     

Peening action and residual stresses in high-velocity oxygen fuel thermal spraying of 316L stainless steel

316L stainless steel powder was sprayed by a high-pressure high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) process. Effects of powder size and the pressure in the combustion chamber on the velocity and temperature of sprayed particles were studied by using an optical instrument, first, at the substrate position. A strong negative correlation between the particle temperature and the diameter was found, whereas the correlation between the velocity and the diameter was not significant. The pressure in the combustion chamber affected the velocity of sprayed particles significantly, whereas the particle temperature remained largely unchanged. In-situ curvature measurement was employed in order to study the process of stress generation during HVOF spraying. From the measured curvature changes, the intensity of peening action and the resultant compressive stress by HVOF sprayed particles were found to increase with the kinetic energy of the sprayed particles. The results were further used to estimate the stress distribution within the coatings. X-ray stress measurement revealed that the residual stress on the surface of the HVOF coatings is low and often in tension, but the stress inside the coatings is in a high level of compression.     

电弧喷涂防腐蚀涂层研究

介绍了电孤喷涂稀土铝、铝合金涂层抗腐蚀性能试验,高速电弧喷涂锌、铝涂层的防腐蚀性能试验结果.指出喷涂材料和喷涂设备的发展情况,提高了涂层的防腐蚀性能,使电弧喷涂能够在防腐蚀领域得到更广泛的应用.     

冷喷涂粒子速度-温度协同作用及复合喷涂新工艺研究进展

从冷喷涂粒子速度与温度协同问题出发,归纳总结了影响冷喷涂涂层质量的主要因素,并在此基础上,重点综述了喷嘴结构、气体类型与性质、粒子形态与材料等工艺参数与粒子速度-温度的作用关系.提高喷枪喷嘴扩张段膨胀比,改善黏性效应,提高高速区面积,使用高热扩散系数材料的喷嘴,均能够显著改善粒子速度-温度的协同效果.在工业应用中,可采用喷丸辅助冷喷涂、激光辅助冷喷涂、静电辅助冷喷涂、真空冷喷涂等新型复合沉积技术,实现高强低塑性喷涂粒子材料的沉积成形.最后,就如何深入研究速度-温度高质量协同并获得高质量涂层进行了展望.     

CuCrZr合金表面等离子喷涂Cr3C2-NiCr及NiAl/Cr3C2-NiCr涂层的结合性能

在CuCrZr合金表面等离子喷涂Cr3C2-NiCr涂层、NiAl/Cr3C2-NiCr复合涂层.测试涂层与基体间的结合强度及涂层的热震性能,结合SEM,EDS和XRD等分析涂层物相变化,探讨涂层的结合机理.结果表明,涂层的结合强度均较高;Ni-Al发生放热反应,生成Al4Ni3,Al3Ni2,AlNi3,剩余的铝与铜反应生成Cu3Al2,CuAl2,CuAl,局部区域形成微冶金结合;二种涂层均以机械锚合为主,在参数适合且基体相同的情况下,涂层结合强度取决于涂层材料的力学性能;相同试验条件下,NiAl/Cr3C2-NiCr复合涂层的热震性能优于Cr3C2-NiCr涂层.     

Optimization of Atmospheric Plasma Spray Process Parameters using a Design of Experiment for Alloy 625 coatings

Alloy 625 is a Ni-based superalloy which is often a good solution to surface engineering problems involving high temperature corrosion, wear, and thermal degradation. Coatings of alloy 625 can be efficiently deposited by thermal spray methods such as Air Plasma Spraying. As in all thermal spray processes, the final properties of the coatings are determined by the spraying parameters. In the present study, a D-optimal experimental design was used to characterize the effects of the APS process parameters on in-flight particle temperature and velocity, and on the oxide content and porosity in the coatings. These results were used to create an empirical model to predict the optimum deposition conditions. A second set of coatings was then deposited to test the model predictions. The optimum spraying conditions produced a coating with less than 4% oxide and less than 2.5% porosity. The process parameters which exhibited the most important effects directly on the oxide content in the coating were particle size, spray distance, and Ar flow rate. The parameters with the largest effects directly on porosity were spray distance, particle size, and current. The particle size, current, and Ar flow rate have an influence on particle velocity and temperature but spray distance did not have a significant effect on either of those characteristics. Thus, knowledge of the in-flight particle characteristics alone was not sufficient to control the final microstructure. The oxidation index and the melting index incorporate all the parameters that were found to be significant in the statistical analyses and correlate well with the measured oxide content and porosity in the coatings.

冷喷涂TC4涂层临界沉积速度计算及制备涂层性能研究

目的研究冷喷涂TC4涂层的临界沉积速度及粒子温度对临界沉积速度的影响规律,并研究气体压强对沉积涂层性能的影响规律。方法理论研究上,采用有限元LS-DYNA软件中的Johnson-Cook塑性模型,选取3D164计算单元建立模型,研究粒子在不同温度和不同速度下碰撞基体后的形貌特征,确定粒子沉积临界速度。试验研究上,采用N_2作为冷喷涂驱动气体,在TC4合金上制备TC4涂层,然后采用SEM、Image J图像分析软件、硬度计等分析已沉积涂层的孔隙率和硬度等性能。结果 25、400、500、600℃温度下,计算表明10μm的TC4合金粒子在TC4基板上的临界沉积速度分别为730、465、392、361 m/s,即随粒子温度升高,粒子临界沉积速度降低,粒子沉积成涂层更容易。采用冷喷涂工艺在TC4基板上沉积TC4涂层,在N_2温度600℃、气体压力3 MPa的条件下,制备的TC4涂层厚度约1000μm,与TC4钛合金基体结合紧密,涂层孔隙率约为6.46%。结论气体温度升高,粒子临界沉积速度降低;气体压强变大,制备的涂层厚度就大且更加致密。     

Fe粒子参数对低温超音速火焰喷涂层构建的影响

应用LS-DYNA大应变有限元耦合算法,研究了低温超音速火焰喷涂Fe粒子参数对喷涂层构建的影响.结果表明,随着粒子温度或者速度的升高,粒子所含内能的增加,使得涂层界面温度不断升高,粒子的沉积塑性应变发生变化.粒子在不同基体上的沉积特征表明基体硬度将影响沉积粒子与基体界面的结合状态.随着涂层的构成,后续粒子对已沉积粒子的高速撞击使得先沉积的粒子产生二次塑性变形,并引发温变.先沉积的粒子塑性变形引起的粗化作用将降低后续粒子沉积的临界速度.这些将导致涂层在拉应力作用下发生脆性断裂.     

粉末中C抑制FeAl熔滴氧化机制及其对等离子喷涂层组织与性能的影响*

大气等离子喷涂（APS）金属时,熔滴不可避免地发生氧化是难以获得粒子间结合充分的致密涂层的主要原因。以FeAl金属间化合物为例,提出一种在粉末中添加亚微米金刚石颗粒引入碳源,以期利用碳在高温下优先氧化的特性抑制等离子喷涂飞行粒子中Fe、Al元素的氧化,获得无氧化物的高温熔滴从而制备低氧含量（质量分数）、粒子间充分结合的FeAl金属间化合物涂层的新方法。采用APS制备Fe Al涂层,研究金刚石的添加对涂层氧含量、碳含量、涂层内粒子间结合质量与硬度的影响规律,探讨FeAl熔滴飞行中的氧化行为。采用商用热喷涂粒子诊断系统测量APS喷涂中的粒子温度,通过SEM与XRD表征了涂层的组织结构,并表征涂层的结合强度与硬度。结果表明,在等离子射流的加热和Fe、Al元素放热反应的联合作用下,飞行中FeAl熔滴的表面温度可达2 000℃以上,满足C原位脱氧的热力学条件。与不含碳的传统Fe Al涂层中的氧含量随喷涂距离的增加而显著增加的规律完全不同,用Fe/Al/2.5C粉末喷涂时涂层中的氧含量随距离的增加而减小,表明飞行中熔滴的氧化得到抑制,实现了C原位脱氧抑制金属元素氧化的自清洁氧化物的效应。FeAl/...