Preliminary isotopic studies of fluids from the Cerro Prieto geothermal field

Preliminary isotopic studies of Cerro Prieto geothermal fluids and earlier studies of Mexicali Valley ground waters suggest local recharge of the geothermal system from the area immediately to the west. Oxygen isotope exchange of water with reservoir rock minerals at temperatures increasing with depth has produced fluids with oxygen-18 contents increasing with depth, and pressure drawdown in the southeastern part of the field has allowed lower oxygen-18 fluids to invade the production aquifer from above. The contents of tritium and carbon-14 in the fluid suggest only that the age of the fluid is between 50 and 10,000 years. The isotopic compositions of carbon and sulfur are consistent with a magmatic origin of these elements but a mixed sedimentary-organic origin appears more likely for carbon and is also possible for sulfur. Investigations of the isotopic compositions of geothermal and cold ground waters continue and are being expanded as fluids become available and as separation and analysis methods are improved.     

Geology of the Cerro Prieto geothermal field

The Cerro Prieto geothermal field is located in the Mexicali Valley which is characterized morphologically by the presence of the elongated Cucapah range striking predominantly NW-SE. This range consists of Upper Cretaceous granite which has intruded and metamorphized the Cretaceous and/or Paleozoic sediments. Near the field is the rhyodacitic Cerro Prieto volcano which pierces through the Cenozoic deltaic sediments.We divided the deltaic sediments into two lithostratigraphic units: Unit A: Unconsolidated Quaternary deltaic sediments composed of clays, sands and gravels. Unit B: Consolidated Tertiary deltaic sediments composed of siltstone, shales and sandstones.Since the geothermal aquifer is intimately related to the structural behavior of the geological formations which are overlaid by unconsolidated deltaic sediments, it was necessary to apply different geophysical methods to understand the behavior of the consolidated sediments and the basement.Based upon geophysical surveys and the wells completed to date, a regional geologic model and several cross-sections of the Cerro Prieto field have been developed.Two fault systems have been defined. The principal one, which we called the Cerro Prieto system, has a predominantly NW-SE strike, parallel to important faults such as the San Andreas, San Jacinto, Cucapah, Imperial etc.Normal to the NW-SE system are faults with predominantly SW-NE strikes, which we designated the Volcano system. At depth, these two systems have apparently created a step-faulted horst and graben structure striking NW-SE with its eastern and western sides out.A number of cross-sections were made based on petrographic analyses of cuttings and core samples. These sections confirm the existence of two fault systems passing through the geothermal field, which complicates the structural interpretation of the field.The geologic sections based on the petrographic analysis of rock samples obtained from the drillings render very complicated a structural interpretation of the two fault systems which affect the geothermal field and which occur locally in great frequency.     

Preliminary geochemical model of the Cerro Prieto geothermal field

The distribution of the Na-K-Ca index values in the geothermal aquifer of Cerro Prieto indicates a probable cold-water recharge in the northern and western parts of the present producing field. In the central part of the field, the distribution of Na-K-Ca values is very irregular, due to the effect of percolation or the vertical descending flow of colder waters caused by apparent over-exploitation.The large area with indices varying between 0·5 and 0·7 to the east, southeast, and south of the field confirm the presence of hotter geothermal waters than those observed in the present producing field. The limits of this hot aquifer have not yet been determined toward the east and southeast.The temperature distribution in the Cerro Prieto aquifer confirms the conclusions reached using the Na-K-Ca index. The maximum temperature calculated was in well M-53 (350°C) and the minimum was in M-9 (250°C), when wells M-6 and M-1A, which have lower temperatures, are not taken into account.The chloride distribution in the aquifer confirms the recharge of colder, less saline waters in the northern and western parts of the field. It was surprising to find that the chloride content in the aquifer was lower in the eastern part (M-53) than in the present field, even though the temperature is higher. Another interesting fact is the extremely low chloride content found in well M-101, with temperatures around 290°C.The distribution of potassium and silica in the aquifer was not as useful for the interpretation of fluid movement as originally expected. Discrepancies were found with respect to the interpretations based on the Na - K - Ca index and the chloride content.In regard to the changes in the Na - K - Ca index, in temperature, and in chloride content during the exploitation of the field, a gradual increase in Na - K - Ca index values was observed in wells with high and low enthalpy. In exceptional cases these values decrease or remain constant. This increase in the index has represented a 10 to 20°C temperature decrease with respect to the original values existing at the beginning of the exploitation of the field (1973). The chloride content in the aquifer has decreased at different rates, from 670 mg/l per year in M-26 to 371 mg/1 per year in well M-42, even though in some wells (M-20) it has increased and in others (M-5) it has remained almost constant.In order to decrease the rate of temperature and pressure reduction in the present producing field, it is recommended that production of low enthalpy wells be suspended and be replaced by new wells located in the periphery of the field, preferably to the southwest and northeast. Thus, the production area would at least be doubled, in an attempt to avoid the percolation or vertical flow, which is apparently causing the cooling of the reservoir.Another measure, which could help prevent a rapid drawdown, is to exploit the deeper hot aquifers that apparently exist in the center of the field. This would first have to be confirmed by an exploratory well or by deepening one of the present wells.     

Geochemical evidence of drawdown in the Cerro Prieto geothermal field

Some wells of the Cerro Prieto geothermal field have undergone changes in the chemistry of fluids produced which reflect reservoir processes. Pressure decreases due to production in the southeastern part of the field have produced both drawdown of lower chloride fluids from an overlying aquifer and boiling in the aquifer with excess steam reaching the wells. These reservoir changes are indicated by changes in fluid chloride concentrations, Na/K ratios and measured enthalpies and by comparisons of aquifer fluid temperatures and chloride concentrations calculated from enthalpy and chemical measurements. Fluid temperatures have not been greatly affected by this drawdown because heat contained in the rock was transferred to the fluid. When this heat is exhausted, fluid temperatures may drop rapidly.     

The origin of the Cerro Prieto geothermal brine

The Cerro Prieto geothermal brine may have originated from mixing of Colorado River water with seawater evaporated to about six times its normal salinity. This mixture circulated deeply and was heated by magmatic processes. During deep circulation, Li, K, Ca, B, SiO₂ and rare alkalis were transferred from rock minerals to the water, and Mg, SO₄, and a minor quantity of Na were transferred to the rock. Similar alteration of seawater salt chemistry has been observed in coastal geothermal systems and produced in laboratory experiments. After heating and alteration the brine was further diluted to its present range of composition. Oxygen isotopes in the fluid are in equilibrium with reservoir calcite and have been affected by exploitation-induced boiling and dilution.     

Vitrinite reflectance geothermometry and apparent heating duration in the Cerro Prieto geothermal field

Vitrinite reflectance measured in immersion oil (R_o) on kerogen extracted from hydrothermally altered mudstones in borehole M-84 at the Cerro Prieto geothermal field exhibit an increase in mean reflectance ( ) from 0.12 per cent at 0.24 km depth to 4.1 per cent at 1.7 km depth. Downhole temperatures measured over this interval increase from about 60° to 340°C. These data plotted against temperature fall along an exponential curve with a coefficient of determination of about 0.8. Other boreholes sampled in the field show similar relationships. A regression curve calculated for temperature and in borehole M-105 correctly predicts temperatures in other boreholes within the central portion of the geothermal system. The correlation between the reflectance values and logged temperature, together with consistent temperature estimates from fluid inclusion and oxygen isotope geothermometry, indicates that changes in are an accurate and sensitive recorder of the maximum temperature attained. Therefore, vitrinite reflectance can be used in this geothermal system to predict the undisturbed temperature in a geothermal borehole during drilling before it regains thermal equilibrium. Although existing theoretical functions which relate to temperature and duration of heating are inaccurate, empirical temperature- curves are still useful for geothermometry.A comparison of temperature- regression curves derived from nine boreholes within the Cerro Prieto system suggests that heating across the central portion of the field occurred penecontemporaneously, but varies near margins. Boreholes M-93 and M-94 appear to have cooled from their maximum temperatures, whereas M-3 and Prian-1 have only recently been heated.Comparison of the temperature- data from the Salton Sea, California, geothermal system indicates that the duration of heating has been longer there than at the Cerro Prieto field.     

Magnetotelluric studies at Cerro Prieto

Ten magnetotelluric soundings were made near the production zone at Cerro Prieto, bringing to 17 the number of stations occupied in and around the geothermal field during 1978 and 1979. Results from the first seven soundings were reported elsewhere (Gamble et al., 1980). Data were analyzed in the field using a DEC LSI-11 microcomputer installed in a recording truck. The new soundings provide new information on the geometry of the geothermal system. We find evidence for a narrow resistive zone plunging southeastward, at a shallow angle, from a concealed apex a few hundred meters north of the power plant. This zone comes within about 500 m of the surface and can be traced roughly 5 km to the south. This zone correlates very well with a region of hydrothermal metamorphism, which has been identified by means of detailed studies of cores and cuttings from wells. The three dimensionality of this feature, combined with the influence of the large resistivity contrast between valley sediments and Cucapa Range granites 10 km to the west, makes a rigorous quantitative interpretation impractical. Although such an interpretation awaits further advancements in the techniques of calculating electromagnetic scattering by complex geological structures, the general picture seems clear. A comparison of the subsurface resistivity model with the position of the production zone and with subsurface geology suggests that the heat source lies at depth, roughly 4 km SSE of the present power plant.North of the power plant a two-dimensional interpretation of the magnetotelluric data is possible. A good fit between observed and calculated parameters is obtained for a subsurface model that is consistent with the model derived from dipole - dipole de resistivity measurements.     

Overview of Cerro Prieto studies

The studies performed on the Cerro Prieto geothermal field, Mexico, since the late 1950s are summarized. Emphasis is given to those activities leading to the identification of the sources of heat and mass, the fluid flow paths, and the phenomena occurring in the field in its natural state and under exploitation.     

Geophysical well - log correlations along various cross-sections of the Cerro Prieto geothermal field

The Comisión Federal de Electricidad of Mexico and Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory of the United States are currently conducting joint investigations of the Cerro Prieto geothermal field, located approximately 35 km south of the city of Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico. Based on the geophysical well logs, transversal cross sections were constructed. This study consists mainly of correlating electrical markers observed in the logs. Temperature logs were also used to assist in the differentiation of what we call reservoirs A and B.In this article the stratigraphy observed in the cross-sections, the faults, and the identified producing layers will be described. Finally, the usefulness of this type of study for planning new wells, for selecting producing intervals, as well as for the development of the geologic model of the field will be presented.     

Hydrothermal mineral zones in the geothermal reservoir of Cerro Prieto

Detailed petrologic studies completed to date on ditch cuttings and core from 23 wells in the Cerro Prieto field have led to recognition of regularly distributed prograde metamorphic mineral zones. The progressive changes in mineralogy exhibit a systematic relationship with reservoir temperature.The Cerro Prieto reservoir consists of a series of sandstones, siltstones, and shales composing part of the Colorado River delta. The western part of the field contains relatively coarser sediments apparently also derived from the delta and not from the basin margins as formerly thought. The most abundant detrital minerals in the sediments include quartz, feldspar, kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, chlorite, mixed-layer clays, calcite, dolomite and iron hydroxides. Some of these minerals were also formed diagenetically.The following progressive stages of post-depositional alteration in response to increasing temperature have been observed: (1) diagenetic zone (low temperature), (2) illite-chlorite zone (above ~ 150°C), (3) calc-aluminum silicate zone (above ~ 230°C) and the biotite zone (above ~ 325°C). These zones are transitional to some degree and can be further subdivided based on the appearance or disappearance of various minerals.One immediate application of these studies is the ability, from a study of cuttings obtained during drilling of a well, to predict the temperatures which will be observed when the well is completed.     

Distribution of hydrothermal mineral zones in the Cerro Prieto geothermal field of Baja California, Mexico

Our ongoing studies of water-rock interaction at Cerro Prieto have now been extended to include samples from 40 wells. We have confirmed the regular sequence of progressive hydrothermal alteration zones previously described, and have mapped these alteration zones across the geothermal field. Our earlier work showed the relationships between hydrothermal mineralogy, temperature and permeability, in that alteration occurs at lower temperature in sandstone than in the less permeable shales. The effects of chemical parameters such as silica activity and differences in CO₂ fugacity have also become apparent when mineral assemblages are compared in sandstones from different wells at the same temperature. A rather complete picture of the shape of the reservoir and the nature of its boundaries is developing, and we have begun to identify patterns in the observed hydrothermal mineral zonations which are characteristic of different temperature gradients. We infer such different gradients to be indicative of different parts of the hydrothermal flow regime. In certain wells mineral zones are closely spaced, indicating steep thermal gradients, while in others they are much farther apart. We believe that patterns characteristic of recharge, discharge and upwelling zones as well as areas of primarily horizontal flow can be recognized.The geothermal circulation system at Cerro Prieto appears to be rather young and shows no indication of retrograde reactions due to cooling. The pattern of fluid flow does not seem to be significantly affected by faults, stratigraphic horizons or by the presence of a cap-rock. The mineral zones define a thermal dome which is apparently fed from the east and spreads westward.     

Regional and local networks of horizontal control, Cerro Prieto geothermal area

The Cerro Prieto geothermal area in the Mexicali Valley 30 km southeast of Mexicali, Baja California, is probably deforming due to (1) the extraction of large volumes of steam and hot water, and (2) active tectonism. Two networks of precise horizontal control were established in Mexicali Valley by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1977 – 1978 to measure both types of movement as they occur. These networks consisted of (1) a regional trilateration net brought into the mountain ranges west of the geothermal area from survey stations on an existing U.S. Geological Survey crustal-strain network north of the international border, and (2) a local net tied to stations in the regional net and encompassing the area of present and planned geothermal production. Survey lines in this net were selected to span areas of probable ground-surface movements in and around the geothermal area.Electronic distance measuring (EDM) instruments, operating with a modulated laser beam, were used to measure the distances between stations in both networks. The regional net was run using a highly precise long-range EDM instrument, helicopters for transportation of men and equipment to inaccessible stations on mountain peaks, and a fixed wing airplane flying along the line of sight. Precision of measurements with this complex long-range system approached 0–2 ppm of line length. The local net was measured with a medium-range EDM instrument requiring minimal ancillary equipment. Precision of measurements with this less complex system approached 3 ppm for the shorter line lengths.The detection and analysis of ground-surface movements resulting from tectonic strains or induced by geothermal fluid withdrawal is dependent on subsequent resurveys of these networks.     

Theoretical studies of Cerro Prieto brines' chemical equilibria

We used a chemical equilibrium model, implemented in a compact FORTRAN package called HITEQ, to investigate possible mineral deposition related to prereinjection treatment of Cerro Prieto brines for silica removal. Large saturation ratios of the treated brines with respect to several minerals are indicated by these computations. As a remedy, we propose an inexpensive CO₂ removal scheme aimed at inhibiting carbonate mineral precipitation. This scheme is quantitatively discussed with the aid of HITEQ. We conclude that the proposed treatment is both technically and economically feasible.     

Gases in steam from Cerro Prieto geothermal wells with a discussion of steam/gas ratio measurements

As part of a joint USGS-CFE geochemical study of Cerro Prieto, steam samples were collected for gas analyses in April, 1977. Analyses of the major gas components of the steam were made by wet chemistry (for H₂O,CO₂,H₂S and NH₃) and by gas chromatography (He,H₂,Ar,O₂,N₂ and hydrocarbons).The hydrocarbon gases in Cerro Prieto steam closely resemble hydrocarbons in steam from Larderello, Italy and The Geysers, California which, although they are vapor-dominated rather than hot-water geothermal systems, also have sedimentary aquifer rocks. These sedimentary geothermal hydrocarbons are characterized by the presence of branched C_4–6 compounds and a lack of unsaturated compounds other than benzene. Relatively large amounts of benzene may be characteristic of high-temperature geothermal systems. All hydrocarbons in these gases other than methane most probably originate from the thermal metamorphosis of organic matter contained in the sediments.     

Chemistry of silica in Cerro Prieto brines

We have studied the precipitation of amorphous silica from synthetic geothermal brines that resemble the flashed brine at Cerro Prieto. We found that part of the dissolved silica quickly polymerizes to form suspended colloidal silica. The colloidal silica flocculates and settles slowly at unmodified brine pH values near 7.35. Raising the pH of the brine to about 7.8 by adding base and stirring for a few minutes causes rapid and complete flocculation and settling. These results have been confirmed in the field using actual Cerro Prieto brine. Several commercially available flocculating agents were also tested. Both in the laboratory and in the field, we found quaternary amines to be effective with some brine compositions but not with others.These results suggest the following simple preinjection brine treatment process: age the brine for 10 – 20 min in a covered holding tank, add 30 to 40 ppm lime (Ca(OH)₂), stir for 5 min, and separate the flocculated silica from the brine using a conventional clarifier. The brine coming out of such a process will be almost completely free of suspended solids.The pilot plant tests needed to reduce this conceptual process to practice are discussed.In a separate study, we researched the rate of deposition of silica scale from synthetic brines. We found that a modest decrease in pH could significantly reduce the scaling rate at a reasonable cost.     

Gas chemistry and helium isotopes at Cerro Prieto

Seven producing wells and seven hot springs in the Cerro Prieto geothermal field were sampled during April and September 1977, for determination of gas chemistry and helium isotope ratios. Well gases are remarkably uniform in gas chemistry and helium isotope ratio, showing high ³He/⁴He ratios characteristic of mantle-derived helium, and higher than expected N₂/Ar ratios. Comparison with the hot spring data suggests that the deep gas component observed in wells is modified during transit to the hot springs by addition of crustal helium, dissolved air and possibly organic methane; alternatively, chemical re-equilibration at lower temperatures may be responsible for increasing the CH₄/H₂ ratio.     

Analysis of Cerro Prieto well logs: Some results and problems

The evaluation of well logs from the Cerro Prieto geothermal field is made difficult by the wellbore conditions existing during the logging runs and by the complex minerology of the hydrothermal reservoir.In order to obtain well logs at the Cerro Prieto geothermal field, the wellbore must be cooled to at least the maximum operational temperature of available well-logging equipment, normally 120°C. Since undisturbed formation temperatures are usually in excess of 250°C at Cerro Prieto, the cooling of the wellbore creates an acute thermal gradient between the wellbore and the undisturbed formations. An understanding of the influence of this gradient on logging responses is necessary to establish confidence in well log evaluations.Similarly, since the mineralogic characteristics of the formations affect the well-log responses, quantitative mineralogic studies of wellbore cuttings and core make an important contribution to log evaluation. This influence is pronounced in a hydrothermal reservoir where complex mineralogies occur.An appreciation of the effects of wellbore cooling and complex mineralogies on log responses should increase confidence in the evaluation of Cerro Prieto geothermal well logs.