Influence of hydrodynamic parameters on particle attrition during fluidization at high temperature

In a fluidized bed, attrition both increases the number of particles and reduces particle size, which may affect reactor performance, fluidizing properties, operating stability and operating costs. Most fluidized applications are conducted at high temperature, but in the past most attrition correlations were performed at room temperature, so the attrition rate at high temperature could not be predicted. In contrast, this study investigates the attrition rate of fluidized materials at high temperature. Silica sand was used as the bed material; the operating parameters included temperature, particle size, static bed height and gas velocity to assess the attrition rate. Then an appropriate correlation was developed by regression analysis to predict attrition rate at high temperature. Experimental results indicated that the attrition rate increases with increasing temperature. In addition, the particle attrition increased as average particle size decreased because the probability of collision increases with surface area. The attrition rate increased with increasing gas velocity because of increased kinetic stress of particle movement. The actual density and viscosity of air at specific fluidization temperature were modified and an Ar number was introduced to fit our experimental data. The experimental correction agrees with the experimental results, which can predict particle attrition rate at high temperatures.     

High velocity attrition nozzles in fluidized beds

Gas-solid fluidized beds are used in many industrial applications such as polyethylene production, drying, coating, granulation, fluid catalytic cracking and fluid coking. For some industrial applications, controlling the size distribution of the particles in a fluid bed is extremely important in order to avoid poor fluidization. One method to control the size of the particles in the bed is to use attrition nozzles, which inject high velocity gas jets into the bed creating high shear regions and grinding particles together. The objective of this study was to test different high velocity attrition nozzles and operating conditions in order to determine the effects of fluidization velocity, nozzle size, nozzle geometry, bed material and attrition gas properties on the grinding efficiency. Samples of solids were taken from the bed and analyzed before and after each injection and a grinding efficiency was defined as the new surface area created per mass of attrition gas used. An empirical correlation was also developed to estimate the grinding efficiency, and its predictions were validated using the experimental data. Large diameter nozzles with a Laval nozzle geometry, operating at high upstream pressures and high fluidization velocities, resulted in the highest grinding efficiencies. Gas properties, such as speed of sound and density, had a significant impact on the grinding efficiency.     

Attrition characteristics of alumina catalyst for fluidized bed incinerator

Attrition characteristics of alumina catalyst for catalytic incineration have been studied in a fluidized bed cold mode combustor (F10 cm, 160 cm height). The particle size and density of alumina catalyst were 1.4-1.7 mm and 1.13 g/cm3. As operating variables, excess gas velocity (U-U_mf) and bed weight (W_b) were selected. The experimental results show that attrition rate of alumina catalyst increased with excess gas velocity and bed weight due to intensive rubbing and collision caused by bubble coalescence. The size of the entrained particles collected in cyclone ranges over 0.5 to 100 mm, and the mean size for number base increases with an increase of excess gas velocity.     

流化床与固定床耦合反应器中的颗粒磨损

在直径50mm的冷模流化床与固定床耦合反应器中,考察了活性炭颗粒在130～150℃及不同气速下的磨损情况,得到了不同气速下固定床中圆柱状颗粒的磨损率随时间的变化关系,同时分析了滞留在流化床、固定床及袋滤器中的细颗粒在不同气速下的粒径分布与质量分布.结果表明,颗粒在该耦合反应器中磨损严重,在0.212～0.424m/s气速下,固定床中颗粒质量损失可达3%～4%,流化床中颗粒平均粒径由200μm降至100μm以下.     

Attrition of porous glass particles in a fluidised bed

Fluidisation is frequently accompanied by unwanted attrition of the bed material. This paper focuses on the mechanical aspects of fines creation by attrition in fluidised beds supported by multi-orifice distributor plates. The attrition rates of low-density porous glass particles were measured; these particles show abrasive wear behaviour rather than breakage. Positron emission particle tracking (PEPT) was used to follow particle motion in three dimensions within the fluidised bed. For a single orifice distributor with background fluidisation, the attrition rate increased exponentially with increasing orifice gas velocity. For a multi-orifice distributor, however, attrition rates were roughly proportional to excess gas velocity, except near to a critical ratio of particle to orifice diameter; as this ratio approached 2, attrition was observed to increase by an order of magnitude. A method is proposed for estimating attrition rates from a combination of small-scale experimental results and theoretical calculations of distributor jet entrainment rates.     

Factors affecting methanol photocatalytic oxidation and catalyst attrition in a fluidized-bed reactor

A resolution IV fractional factorial experimental design explored the effects of seven factors on both the methanol photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) rate and the catalyst particle size distribution using a fluidized-bed reactor. The seven factors were as follows: calcination temperature, calcination time, grinding order, particle size, vibration amplitude, carrier gas humidity, and fluidization velocity. Decreasing calcination temperature from 726 to 623 K increased the activity of TiO₂/Al₂O₃ catalysts for methanol PCO. Attrition during fluidization liberated small TiO₂ particles from the bulk catalyst and the rate of attrition increased with gas velocity. Attrition was the primary cause of catalyst elutriation and not the presence of fine particles initially present in the bed from catalyst preparation. Increasing humidity caused agglomeration of fine particles, which reduced the amount of catalyst carryover. Removal of fines from the catalyst bed prior to fluidization caused an increase in catalyst attrition until the amount of fines present in the bed was similar to that of a bed in which fines were not removed.     

Effects of high temperature and combustion on fluidized material attrition in a fluidized bed

This study investigated the effects of high temperature and combustion conditions on the attrition of fluidized material in a fluidized bed. Silica sand was fluidized in air at an atmospheric pressure between 873 K and 1,073 K. The operating parameters evaluated in investigating the attrition rate of fluidized material included particle size, temperature and both combustion and non-combustion conditions. Experimental results indicated that the total weight of attrition increased with increasing temperature and decreased with increasing particle size. The attrition was higher during the initial fluidization period than the later period, due to the loss of sharp corners and edges of the attrition particles. The initial and final attrition rates during combustion were higher than those in the non-combustion condition, because the heat and thermal shock were produced to increase attrition rate during incineration. Comparing the experimental data with previous correlations, that reveals a significant level of error in the prediction results from existing correlations. This error may occur because the experimental equations neglected the operating temperature and particle size.     

A model on attrition of quartzite particles as a bed material in fluidized beds

In this paper, a model on attrition of quartzite particles as an inert bed material in fluidized beds has been established on the particle-particle collision. For the convenience of describing the attrition of quartzite particles in fluidized beds, we chose the attrition rate constant (k_ARC) as one main characteristic parameter to develop the model.In order to verify the validity of the developed model, an attrition experiment of quartzite particles has been carried out in a lab-scale circulating fluidized bed. The predicted results from the population model were close to the experimental data as far as the engineering use is concerned. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was performed by using the developed model to examine effects of initial particle diameter, attrition time, and fluidization number on k_ARC.     

Impact attrition of brittle structured particles at low velocities: rigorous use of a laboratory vibrational impact tester

Brittle particle impact attrition was measured over three orders of magnitude of impact velocity by use of both single- and multiple-impact testers. The multiple-impact tester was a resonant cantilever impactor with dynamic amplitude control and small-gap cavities, designed to ensure operation near the transition between the bouncing and resonant impact regimes. For this impactor, a novel technique using a trajectory simulation was developed to elucidate average impact velocities, effective particle restitution behavior, and average losses per impact from a set of nominal attrition rates (loss/time). This allowed direct comparison of data from the single-impact and multiple-impact testers.Results were obtained for three brittle, porous pharmaceutical particles with significantly-different, well-characterized internal structures. Results reveal a relatively unexplored mode of attrition that is distinguished by lack of gross fragmentation at low velocities, with a steep velocity dependence. This regime is expected for any brittle particle for which simple chipping is not seen—such as rounded solid particles and many agglomerates. At higher impact velocity, gross particle fragmentation is observed. The transition between these attrition regimes appears connected to particle structure, such as the size of attrition-resistant primary particles in an agglomerate or the point at which dominant flaws (that lead to fragmentation) are no longer critically active. The ranking of particles according to damage in high-velocity impacts was not predictive of damage in low-velocity impacts, because the particle attrition did not necessarily exhibit the same velocity-dependence in the two regimes. Such differences are critical for predicting performance in operations such as pneumatic conveying or fluidized beds, respectively.     

基于图像法喷动床内空隙率研究

利用图像二值化方法处理图片,并采用Matlab编程实现空隙率的测量,从微观层次分析空隙率对喷动流化床内流动状态的影响。研究了颗粒粒径、喷口数量和表观气速对空隙率分布的影响。结果表明,增大表观气速使床层底部的稀相区增大,床层膨胀高度增加,空隙率也随之增加。增大颗粒粒径会增大最小临界流化速率,所以在其达到流化状态后流化床内颗粒粒径增大,床内喷动区空隙率减小比较明显。在相同条件下,与单喷口相比双喷口在床层底部附近存在合并射流,同时颗粒能到达的高度显著增加,底部两侧停滞区面积减小。结合对空隙率的分析,提出一种新的表征流化床内流化状态的参数(流化指数),可以直观地表示流化床内颗粒的流化状态。     

Effect of the grid-velocity on attrition in gas fluidized beds

Changes in particle size distribution play an important role in fluidized bed processes, and these changes are dominated by elutriation and carryover of fines and by attrition or agglomeration. In this study on attrition in gas-fluidized beds, we found that the attrition is a function of the particle size distribution, the jet velocities and the overall superficial gas velocity. Empirical equations have been developed to predict the attrition rate.     

Limestone particle attrition and size distribution in a small circulating fluidized bed

Limestone particle attrition was investigated in a small circulating fluidized bed reactor at temperatures from 25 to 850 °C, 1 atm pressure and superficial gas velocities from 4.8 to 6.2 m/s. The effects of operating time, superficial gas velocity and temperature were studied with fresh limestone. No calcination or sulfation occurred at temperatures ?580 °C, whereas calcination and sulfation affected attrition at 850 °C. Increasing the temperature (while maintaining the same superficial gas velocity) reduced attrition if there was negligible calcination. Attrition was high initially, but after ∼24 h, the rate of mass change became constant. The ratio of initial mean particle diameter to that at later times increased linearly with time and with (U_g − U_mf)², while decreasing exponentially with temperature, with an activation energy for fresh limestone of −4.3 kJ/mol. The attrition followed Rittinger’s surface theory [Beke B. Comminution. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1964; Ray YC, Jiang TS, Wen CY. Particle attrition phenomena in a fluidized bed. Powder Technol 1987a; 49:193-206]. The change of surface area of limestone particles was proportional to the total excess kinetic energy consumed and to the total attrition time, whereas the change of surface area decreased exponentially with increasing temperature. At 850 °C, the attrition rate of calcined lime was highest, whereas the attrition rate was lowest for sulfated particles. When online impact attrition was introduced, the attrition rate was about an order of magnitude higher than without impacts.     

Breakage of sodium benzoate granules under repeated impact conditions

In many industries, handling or processing of relatively fragile particles takes place and predictions are required whether a significant proportion of the particles is damaged. Particles need to show good resistance against static and dynamic loads. The present paper deals with the study of particle resistance to dynamic loads (mainly the attrition behaviour) using a new instrument developed at the Delft University of Technology. The attrition test involves bombarding the particles against a flat target repeatedly, using a crank-slide mechanism. The new equipment generates extremely large number of collisions for each particle, resulting in reproducible generation of damage. The velocity is controlled by changing the frequency and amplitude of oscillation. The particles encounter many collisions on each spot on the particle surface during the test operation. The change in the particle size distribution at different intervals gives a measure of the damage caused to the particles. The damage has been characterised by estimating the specific rate of breakage, which is correlated to the frequency and amplitude of oscillation.     

Attrition of Victorian brown coal during drying in a fluidized bed

Analyzing the attrition of Victorian brown coal during air and steam fluidized bed drying, the change in particle size distribution over a range of initial moisture contents (60% to 0%) and residence times (0 to 60 minutes) was determined. Dried at a temperature of 130°C with a fluidization velocity 0.55 m/s and an initial particle size of 0.5–1.2 mm, both fluidization mediums show a shift in the particle size distribution between three and four minutes of fluidization, with a decrease in mean particle size from 665 µm to around 560 µm. Using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), the change in particle size has been attributed to the transition between bulk and non-freezable water (approximately 55% moisture loss) and can be linked to the removal of adhesion water, but not to fluidization effects. This is proved through the comparison of air fluidized bed drying, steam fluidized bed drying, and fixed bed drying—the fixed bed drying is being used to determine the particle size distribution as a function of drying. The results show the three drying methods produce similar particle size distributions, indicating that both fluidization and fluidization medium have no impact upon the particle size distribution at short residence times around ten minutes. The cumulative particle size distribution for air and steam fluidized bed dried coal has been modeled using the equation P_d = A₂ + (A₁ ? A₂)/(1 + (d/x₀)^p), with the resultant equations predicting the effects of moisture content on the particle size distribution. Analyzing the effect of longer residence times of 30 and 60 minutes, the particle size distribution for steam fluidized bed dried coal remains the same, while air fluidized bed dried coal has a greater proportion of smaller particles.     

Comminution characteristics of Korean anthracite in a CFB reactor

Comminution characteristic of Korean anthracite has been determined with operation conditions in a laboratory scale circulating fluidized bed (CFB) combustor. The fragmentation of the anthracite occurs explosively, and generates lots of fine particles at an early stage of devolatilization. The fragmented particles continue to be reduced with generation of the fine particles during an attrition stage in the CFB combustor. With an increase of operation temperature, the coal shows a high degree of fragmentation and generation of fine particles in the CFB reactor. The particle fragmentation occurs actively as its size and Hard Grove Index (HGI) increase. The attrition is also affected with particle size and HGI of the coal. The initial surface crack and the fine clusters on the particle surface are found to be reasons for explosive fragmentation and for generation of fine particles during devolatilization and combustion in the CFB reactor.     

A simplified model of SO2 capture by limestone in 71 MWe pressurized fluidized bed combustor

A mathematical model of SO₂ capture by uncalcined limestone particles with solid attrition under pressurized fluidized bed combustion conditions was developed based on the shrinking unreacted-core model. Since the thickness of the product layer is sufficiently much smaller than the particle size, a flat surface model was employed. The difference in SO₂ capture behavior between continuous solid attrition and intermittent attrition was investigated. The reaction rate for intermittent solid attrition was found to be lower than that for continuous attrition mode under low SO₂ concentration conditions. A simple mathematical expression to calculate reaction rate of SO₂ capture per unit external surface area of limestone is proposed.The present simplified mathematical model of SO₂ capture by single limestone particle under periodical attrition conditions was applied to the analysis of a large-scale pressurized fluidized bed combustor. By giving the period of attrition as a parameter, the experimental results agreed well with the model results. From the vertical concentration profile of SO₂ concentration, the emission of SO₂ was found to be governed by the balance between SO₂ formation rate from char and SO₂ capture by limestone at the upper surface of the dense bed. A simplified expression to estimate SO₂ emission from pressurized fluidized bed combustors was proposed.     

Flue gas desulfurization in an internally circulating fluidized bed reactor

An internally circulating fluidized bed reactor (ICFBR) was used as a desulfurization apparatus in this study. The height of the bed was 2.5 m, and the inner diameter was 9 cm. The bed materials were calcium sorbent and silica sand. The effects of the operating parameters of the flue gas desulfurization including relative humidity, particle size of the calcium sorbent, inlet concentration of SO₂, difference between the superficial gas velocities in the draft tube and the annulus, and superficial gas velocity in the draft tube on SO₂ removal efficiency (RE) were investigated. It was found that when the relative humidity (RH) was varied from 40% to 80%, the steady state RE had a largest value of approximately 15% when the relative humidity was 60%. When RH = 50%, 60% and 70%, RE decreased initially and then increased. After that RE decreased again until a steady state was reached. In addition, RE decreased with increasing calcium particle size or inlet SO₂ concentration. A larger difference between the superficial gas velocities in the draft tube and the annulus had a higher RE resulting from increasing reactivity of the calcium sorbent caused by a higher attrition rate. Moreover, a higher attrition rate had a higher total volume of the flue gas treated. Finally, a model to predict the steady state RE in ICFBR was proposed. It assumed that the draft tube section was a bubbling fluidized bed while the annulus section was a moving bed. In addition, the effects of the calcium sorbent conversion, attrition rate and gas-bypassing fractions on RE were also taken into account in this model. It was found that the values of RE predicted by this model agreed with the experimental results.     

Study on attrition of spherical-shaped Mo/HZSM-5 catalyst for methane dehydro-aromatization in a gas-solid fluidized bed

As a potential methane efficient conversion process,non-oxidative aromatization of methane in fluidized bed requires a catalyst with good attrition resistance,especially in the states of high temperature,long-time rapid movement and chemical reaction.Existing evaluation methods for attrition resistance,such as ASTM D5757 and Jet Cup test,are targeted for fresh catalysts at ambient temperature,which cannot well reflect the real process.In this study,spherical-shaped Mo/HZSM-5 catalyst prepared by dipping and spray drying was placed in a self-made apparatus for attrition testing,in which the catalyst attrition under differ-ent system temperatures,running time and process factors was investigated with percent mass loss (PML),particle size-mass distribution (PSMD) and scanning electron microscope (SEM).Carbon deposition on the catalyst before and after activation,aromatization and regeneration was analyzed by thermogravimetry(TG),and the attrited catalysts were evaluated for methane dehydro-aromatization (MDA).The results show that the surface abrasion and body breakage of catalyst particles occur continuously,with the increase of system temperature and running time,and make the PML rise gradually.The process factors of activation,aromatization and regeneration can cause the catalyst attrition and carbon deposits,which broaden the PSMD in varying degrees,and the carbon-substances on catalysts greatly improve their attrition resistance at high temperature.Catalyst attrition has a certain influence on its catalytic performance,and the main reasons point to particle breakage and fine powder escape.     

生物质快速热解流化床反应器气力进料特性

为探究不同工况下热解流化床反应器的气力进料特性,设计并搭建了流化床反应器气力进料冷态试验装置。生物质原料和床料分别采用落叶松颗粒和石英砂颗粒,通过试验测得了本装置的最小流化速度,研究了流化气速、喷动气速、流量比、初始静床高、石英砂粒径、落叶松粒径对流化床反应器气力进料特性的影响。试验结果表明：流化气速和喷动气速的增加均会提高进料率;流化气使床料流化并为落叶松颗粒提供进料空间,喷动气为落叶松颗粒提供动能,并平衡一部分床层压力;落叶松与石英砂粒径的增加对进料效果不利;流量比在1.9~2.7范围内进料率高且稳定性好。本文构建了生物质、床料与气体的三相流物理及数学模型,开展试验对模型进行验证,结果表明其预测误差为±13%。     

An experimental study on the primary fragmentation and attrition of limestones in a fluidized bed

In this paper, an experimental study on the primary fragmentation and attrition of 5 limestones in a fluidized bed was conducted. The intensity of fragmentation and attrition were measured in the same apparatus but at different fluidizing velocities. It was found that the averaged size of the particles decreased by about 10-20% during the fragmentation process. The important factors for particle comminution include limestone types, heating rate, calcination condition and ambient CO₂ concentration. Fragmentation mainly occurred in the first a few minutes in the fluidized bed and it was more intense than that in the muffle furnace at the same temperature. The original size effect was ambiguous, depending on the limestone type. The comminution caused by attrition mainly occurred during calcination process rather than sulphation process. The sulphation process was fragmentation and attrition resisted. The attrition rate of sulphate was similar to that of lime in trend, decaying exponentially with time, but was one-magnitude-order smaller than that of lime. Present experimental results indicate that fragmentation mechanism of the limestone is dominated by CO₂ release instead of thermal stress.