Sex of researchers and sex-typed communications as determinants of sex differences in influenceability: A meta-analysis of social influence studies.

The outcomes of 148 studies of whether men and women differ in how easily they are influenced are examined meta-analytically. The analysis indicates that (a) women are more persuasible and more conforming than men in group pressure situations that involve surveillance by the influencing agent. In situations not involving surveillance, women are also more conforming, but this effect is vulnerable to the "file-drawer" problem discussed by R. Rosenthal (1979). Effect-size estimates show that the sex difference in influenceability is generally small. The present article also describes a study with 83 male and 118 female undergraduates that supported the hypothesis that sex of researchers is a determinant of the sex difference. 79% of the authors of influenceability studies were male, and men obtained larger sex differences in the direction of greater persuasibility and conformity among women. In studies authored by women, there was no sex difference. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role orientation and self-esteem: A critical meta-analytic review.

Research on the relation between sex-role orientation and psychological well-being has been guided by 1 of 3 models. The traditional congruence model holds that psychological well-being is fostered only when one's sex-role orientation is congruent with one's gender; the androgyny model proposes that well-being is maximized when one's sex-role orientation incorporates a high degree of both masculinity and femininity regardless of one's gender; the masculinity model posits that well-being is a function of the extent to which one has a masculine sex-role orientation. The adequacy of the models was tested by meta-analysis of 35 studies of the relation between sex-role orientation and self-esteem, the indicator of psychological well-being most widely used in sex-role studies. Results of the analysis are most supportive of the masculinity model and showed that the strength of observed relations between sex-role orientation and self-esteem varied as a function of both the sex-role measure and the type of self-esteem measure used in the studies. Methodological issues are identified that should be taken into consideration in future research. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex Role Orientation, Self-Disclosure, and Gender-Related Perceptions.

The level of self-disclosure and the sex-role orientation of 104 males and 91 females was determined in order to assess the impact of these characteristics on interpersonal judgments of gender-related behavior. The subject's own level of disclosure was found to have an impact on perceptions of males and females represented to be moderately high and moderately low in disclosure. Those more similar were viewed to be better adjusted, more likable, and preferred partners in an experiment. There was a failure to find differential standards in the evaluation of male and female disclosure, and a subject's sex role orientation (androgynous or sex role stereotyped) had no effect on perceptions. Gender, however, did have an impact on judgments made and interacted with the gender of the individual perceived. Male subjects rated male and female individuals differentially, whereas female subjects did not. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correlates of sex role stereotyping among mental health professionals.

85 male and 40 female psychologists (mean age 47.9 yrs) and psychiatrists (mean age 54.8 yrs) were administered the Attitudes Toward Women Scale and the short form of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory to assess the effects of sex, sex role attitudes, professional affiliation, and therapeutic orientation on sex-role attitudes and sex-role stereotyping. In general, Ss demonstrated relatively liberal sex role attitudes. However, more liberal attitudes were endorsed by psychologists than by psychiatrists and, within disciplines, by younger Ss and those with fewer years of experience. Regarding sex role stereotyping, Ss with less liberal sex role attitudes exhibited stereotyping to a significantly greater extent than did those with more liberal attitudes. Female Ss endorsed as great a double standard of mental health as did males. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in influenceability.

Examines the hypothesis that women are more influenceable than men in a variety of situations. For persuasion research and for conformity studies not involving group pressure, there is scant empirical support for a sex difference, and for group pressure conformity research, there is support among a substantial minority of studies. Also explored is the possibility that various sex differences in social influence studies are a product of contextual features of experimental settings. This is suggested by the fact that findings reporting greater influenceability among females were more prevalent in studies published prior to 1970 than in those published in the 1970s. Finally, sex differences in various psychological processes that may mediate persuasion and conformity are evaluated as possible explanations for those influenceability sex differences that appear to be genuine. It is suggested that a propensity to yield inherent in the female sex role appears to account for some aspects of influenceability findings, but a 2nd explanation, a tendency for women more than men to be oriented to interpersonal goals in group settings, is also plausible. (7? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control and college women's role expectations.

Hypothesized that college women's locus of control orientations would be related to their role expectations, with women with an external locus of control having lower aspirations, more conservative sex-role ideologies, and less involvement in career planning than women with an internal locus of control. 116 female college juniors and seniors completed a career expectation scale, the Adult Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control Scale (ANSIE), and an index of sympathy for women's liberation ideology. Regression analyses using ANSIE scores as the predictor variable supported the hypotheses. Compared to Ss with internal orientations, Ss with external orientations expected to have less commitment to their careers, to work for a smaller portion of their lives, and to feel more discomfort due to violating sex-role stereotypes. In addition, Ss with a more external orientation reported less career planning activity, less positive feelings about their future careers, and more conservative views on women's liberation ideology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The experimenter as a sex-role model in sex-role stereotyping.

Notes that the influence of the experimenter (E) has been neglected in sex role stereotypy research. Thus, it was predicted that male and female Ss' stereotyping would vary as the sex roles modeled by male and female Es varied from traditional to liberated. 100 high school students rated the concepts of adult male and female on standard stereotypic items and rated the Es' behavior and personality. The general hypothesis of E influence was supported by several significant interaction effects. Results show that the male concept was rated more competent and less warm-expressive than the female concept, thus replicating the basic finding in the literature, but traditional stereotypical differences were most accentuated when male and female Ss were crossed with task-oriented Es of the opposite sex. The reconceptualization of sex-role stereotypes as situationally influenced expectancies, in accord with a social learning theory interpretation of stereotyping, is discussed. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Facial attractiveness, physique, and sex role identity in young children.

Examined the effects of facial attractiveness and physique on sex-role identity and constancy in 74 middle-class 3-9 yr olds. Measures included Ss' sex-role orientation, sex-role preference, sex-role adoption, parent salience, gender recognition, and sex-role constancy. Ratings for facial attractiveness and the ponderal index for body type were completed for each S. Analysis of variance using age, sex, and facial attractiveness as factors revealed no significant main effects for facial attractiveness on any of the measures. Interactions did appear, however, for Sex * Attractiveness * Age on sex-role adoption and for Facial Attractiveness * Sex on gender recognition. Analyses of variance for physique effects resulted in significant interactions of Physique Type * Age on both gender recognition and sex-role preference. Sex differences were present for sex-role orientation, preference, adoption, and parent salience, but not for gender recognition or sex-role constancy. Age differences appeared for sex-role orientation, preference, adoption, constancy, and gender recognition. Overall results fail to support the hypothesis that physical attractiveness and body stereotypes significantly influence sex-role development. It is concluded that these attributes may influence a child's perception of others, but they do not necessarily affect the child's gender assignment of others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of the addition of neutral items on It Scale scores.

Inclusion of neutral items in the It Scale for Children (ITSC), was found to demasculinize the scores of 28 male kindergartners by providing reasonable alternatives to stereotypically male items. The performance of 29 female kindergartners, less constrained by narrow sex-role standards, was not influenced. It is suggested that the original ITSC may need to be modified if valid measures of sex role perferences for males are to be obtained. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sex role deviance in disturbed male adolescents on the perception of psychopathology.

Investigated the effect of sex-role deviance on the perception of psychopathology and correlated the size of this effect with measures of sex-role ideology and gender stereotyping. The study employed a person perception rating task in which Ss (99 school teachers; mean age 24.4) evaluated written case histories of sex-role deviant and sex-role congruent male adolescents with emotional and behavioral problems. Male adolescents were judged to be more disturbed if their hobbies, career aspirations, and interests were deviant for their sex than if they were sex-role congruent. The relationship between evaluative bias (i.e., the extent to which greater disturbance was perceived in sex-role deviant than congruent stimulus persons) and measures of gender stereotyping and sex-role ideology was also established. Gender stereotyping correlated significantly with bias, while sex-role ideology was not significantly correlated. Similar bias effects were found for male and female Ss. (French summary) (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of sex role orientation and gender on counseling skills training.

34 female and 13 male 21–46 yr old postgraduate counselor education students, enrolled in 1 semester of counseling skills training, completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, taped pre- and posttraining quasi-counseling sessions, and took a videotape counseling skills exam. Factorial ANOVAS indicated that sex-role orientation had a significant effect on counseling skills scores and counselor response effectiveness before and after training. Gender had no significant effect. The masculine sex-role-oriented Ss were rated less effective than the undifferentiated sex-role-oriented Ss on counseling skills. All Ss improved over time; those in the androgynous orientation group, significantly more effective prior to training, were not more effective after training. Results suggest that counseling skills training should consider trainee sources of variation in learning. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex roles and psychological well-being: Perspectives on methodology.

Discusses some sources of problematic methodology in recent research designed to relate current measures of sex-role orientation to indices of psychological well-being. Practices and procedures in sex-role research are examined in relation to orthogonal scales of sex-role orientation that provide independent measures of masculinity, femininity, and a newer assessment of androgyny. Directions for increased conceptual and methodological clarity include theoretical and psychometric definitions of androgyny, the relationship of sex-role typing to other aspects of interpersonal functioning, and varying procedures in sex-role and gender distinction, population sampling, and construct validation. Issues are raised concerning the generality of sex-role measures and the desirability of direct behavioral validation criteria. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex-role stereotyping in television commercials: A verbal response mode and content analysis.

Evaluated the degree of sex-role stereotyping in TV commercials using both a verbal response mode and a content analysis. A total of 120 commercials (60 daytime and 60 primetime), each depicting an adult male–female dyad verbally interacting, were drawn from a larger sample of commercials aired between October 1983 and January 1984 on the major North American networks. Results of the 2 analyses reveal a more sex-stereotyped pattern of male–female differences in daytime than in primetime commercials. It is concluded that sex-role stereotyping still exists in TV commercials and is present at subtle as well as obvious levels of analysis. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individuation, gender role, and dissent: Personality mediators of situational forces.

An experimental analysis of dissenting and conforming behavior in small groups revealed a significant interaction between personality and situational variables. Individual differences in gender role and in willingness to be "individuated" were predictive of subjects' choices to disagree or agree with the opinions of other group members. However, this link between personality and social behavior showed within-subjects variation as a function of two situational factors: group norm and opinion topic. Contrary to traditional expectations, personality was a better predictor of behavior on those trials when peer pressure was strong than when it was weak. Personality variables also differentially predicted responses to masculine opinion topics versus feminine ones. These results contribute to a new understanding of the interaction of person and situation, as well as to the psychological meaning of conformity and dissent. They also bear on the long-standing debate about sex differences in influenceability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hysterical personality: An experimental investigation of sex-role conflict.

Divided 39 female hysterical personalities and 39 nonhysterics, selected with the hysterical personality measure, into 3 groups receiving no threat, academic threat, and sex-role threat. 3 measures were obtained: (a) GSR, (b) visual recognition thresholds for sexual and neutral phrases, and (c) personality ratings of male and female Es. Results showed that: (a) both types of threat produced heightened GSR for all Ss; (b) sex-role threat produced lower thresholds for sexual words among hysterics; and (c) hysterics' ratings were more positive for the male E compared with the female E under no threat, but reversed under threat conditions. It is concluded that anxiety over inadequacy and sex-role competency in particular are significant variables affecting the behavior of the hysterical personality. (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of presenter's gender on students' evaluations of presenters discussing sex fairness in counseling: An analogue study.

70 university students who planned to enter graduate school in the helping professions viewed 1 of 4 videotapes. Two tapes described some of the relationships between the law and psychology, and 2 described the issues of sex bias and sex-role stereotyping in counseling women. The same male and female made identical presentations on each topic. Ss evaluated the presenter on a general measure of professional effectiveness and rated the importance of the tape's content. Three of the 4 hypotheses advanced were supported: (a) the male presenter received higher ratings than the female presenter, (b) the difference in ratings between the female and male presenters was greater for the topic directly related to women than for the topic not directly related, and (c) the female presenter discussing sex-role stereotyping received the lowest ratings of the 4 conditions. Contrary to predictions, topics were not rated as more important when presented by a male than by a female. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control, sex role orientation, and self-concept in Black and White third- and sixth-grade male and female leaders in a rural community.

Examined locus of control among 43 Black boys, 36 White boys, 35 Black girls, and 47 White girls from the 3rd and 6th grades. Ss had been selected as class leaders by their peers. Ss completed the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, the Who Should Test, and the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire. White female leaders were more internally controlled than were Black leaders and attributed good outcomes to personal attributes more often than did Black leaders. White female leaders were also more willing to accept responsibility for bad outcomes than were Black female leaders. Self-concept data and sex-role orientation data were not helpful in interpreting the findings but did serve to suggest several avenues for future research in the area of locus of control. Results do not support the findings of other researchers who found that girls attributed their success to luck or to luck and effort while boys attributed their success to effort. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)