Stress, coping, and perceptions of child behavior in parents of preschoolers with cerebral palsy.

This study explored the relationships among stress, coping, and perceptions of child behavior in parents of preschoolers with cerebral palsy. Parents (62 mothers and 22 fathers) completed measures of parenting stress, depression, parenting satisfaction, social support, and child behavior problems. For mothers, only parenting self-efficacy was a significant predictor of maternal perceptions of child adjustment. High levels of maternal social support satisfaction were related to low levels of depression and parenting stress and to high levels of parenting satisfaction. High levels of depression were related to high levels of parenting stress and low levels of parenting satisfaction. For fathers, high levels of distress were related to low levels of parenting satisfaction and high levels of child maladjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pathways from child sexual abuse to adult depression: The role of parental socialization of emotions and alexithymia.

Objective: Depression is common among adult survivors of child sexual abuse (CSA), but the intervening processes responsible for this outcome have not yet been fully delineated. The present study investigated the mediating role of perceived parental emotion socialization and alexithymia (difficulties identifying and describing feelings) in explaining the link between CSA and adult depressive symptoms in female veterans. Method: Cross-sectional data were collected from 110 female veterans who completed self-report questionnaires measuring demographics, sexual victimization history, perceived parental emotion socialization, and current symptoms of alexithymia and depression. Results: Linear regression analyses showed that CSA predicted greater depression, which was partly accounted for by alexithymia. Less positive socialization practices by both parents fully mediated the relationship between CSA and alexithymia. When these factors were examined together in a path model, greater CSA severity predicted perceptions of fewer positive socialization practices by mothers, which, in turn, was associated with greater alexithymia and depression. Conclusions: Perceptions of early positive emotion socialization and current alexithymia may contribute to experience of depression among sexually victimized female veterans. Interventions aimed at targeting emotion regulation skills and perceptions associated with other salient childhood experiences such as emotion socialization by parents could help reduce adult depression among CSA survivors. Furthermore, encouraging positive parenting practices for caregivers of abused children could allay subsequent affective symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting practices and adolescent depressive symptoms in Chinese American families.

This study examined parenting practices and adolescent depressive symptoms among Chinese Americans. First, confirmatory factor analyses revealed that self-reported parenting practices by mothers and fathers and adolescent perception of parenting practices loaded adequately on three subscales: Inductive Reasoning, Monitoring, and Harsh Discipline. Second, parents' depressive symptoms were related to disrupted parenting practices, which, in turn, were significantly related to the negative evaluation of these behaviors by the adolescents. Adolescents' perceptions of such parenting practices were significantly associated with their depressive symptoms. Third, the relationships were robust even after parental income, education, and generation status were statistically controlled. Overall, the relationships between parenting practices and adolescent depressive symptoms among Chinese Americans seemed to echo those found among European Americans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Work, parenting, and the socialization of children.

Examined how adults' investments in work and parenting impinge on socialization practices and perceptions of children's behavior. One hundred ninety-four employed mothers and 104 employed fathers, each with an employed spouse and a 3- to 4-year-old child, completed questionnaires about work and parenting, socialization practices, and perceptions of their children's behavior. Among the findings of particular interest: (a) Parental investment was a stronger predictor of fathers' and mothers' demands for mature behavior than was work investment; (b) women with high commitments to both work and parenting were more likely than others to engage in authoritative parenting; (c) parenting styles were related to mothers' ratings of their children's behavior; and (d) differences in involvement in parenting were associated with differences in how favorably fathers and mothers described their children. Taken together, the results suggest that men's and women's degree of investment in parenting is more consequential for their socialization practices and views of their children than is their degree of investment in work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acculturation and adjustment among immigrant Chinese parents: Mediating role of parenting efficacy.

This study examined parenting efficacy beliefs as a mediator of the association between acculturation and adjustment. The sample consisted of 177 immigrant Chinese mothers and fathers with early adolescent children in Canada. Acculturation was assessed bidimensionally as Canadian and Chinese orientations. A latent psychological adjustment variable was composed of symptoms of depression, feelings of self-esteem, and life satisfaction. Results showed that relations between Canadian orientation and psychological adjustment were partially mediated by parenting efficacy. As expected, the more parents were oriented toward Canadian culture, the more efficacious they felt in their parenting, which in turn was associated with better psychological adjustment. In contrast, mediation of relations between Chinese orientation and psychological adjustment was not supported, as Chinese orientation was not associated with parenting efficacy and was positively associated with psychological adjustment for mothers only. Similar results were found when the meditational model was extended to evaluate parenting practices as an outcome (i.e., warmth, reasoning, and monitoring). That is, parenting efficacy mediated the relation between higher Canadian orientation and more positive parenting practices, whereas Chinese orientation was unrelated to parenting practices. Invariance testing suggested that the models were similar for mothers and fathers. Results support the theory that higher orientation to Canadian culture may advance feelings of parenting efficacy because parents have the cultural knowledge and skills to feel confident parenting in a new intercultural context. Further, they support the expectation that parenting efficacy beliefs, in turn, are important determinants of psychological adjustment and effective parenting for immigrant parents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of mother's parenting practices on child internalizing trajectories following partner violence.

Studies of children's functioning following exposure to a traumatic event rarely have investigated change over the weeks following the event, but examining recovery in the short aftermath of a traumatic event is important for understanding vulnerability to subsequent disorder, as well as the potential utility of preventive interventions. Data are reported from a short-term longitudinal study of 35 mother-child dyads over 14 weeks following exposure to an incident of severe intimate partner violence. Using a developmental-ecological framework, we proposed that maternal parenting practices would be associated with children's recovery, and that maternal distress would be associated with her parenting practices. Consistent with hypotheses, observed parenting practices at baseline predicted the trajectory of children's self-reported internalizing problems over the study period. Maternal mental health problems were associated with child depression symptoms, but not with overall child internalizing symptoms. Parenting was not associated with maternal mental health symptoms. Further studies should pay closer attention to the role of parenting in children's adjustment in the aftermath of a traumatic event. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Chronic parenting stress: Moderating versus mediating effects of social support.

Contrasted the widely cited "buffer" model of social support with an alternative mediator model. Distinctions were drawn between the functions of social support under chronic vs acute stress conditions, and between situation-specific stressors and major life events. Ongoing parenting stress was assessed in 96 mothers of deaf children and 118 matched controls. Tests of the competing models showed no moderating effects for social support. However, path analyses suggested that social support mediated the relationship between stressors and outcomes. Chronic parenting stress was associated with lowered perceptions of emotional support and greater symptoms of depression and anxiety. Furthermore, parenting stress accounted for a substantial proportion of the variance in psychological distress scores in contrast to life event stress, which was only weakly related to psychological outcomes. The implications of mediational models for understanding adaptation to chronic stress are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Father involvement and self-report parenting of children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder.

This study examined the moderating effects of 4 variables on the relation between father involvement (FI) and self-reported parenting practices of 71 couples who have children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The variables were parents' love for their spouses, similarity in child-rearing views, traditional role identification, and paternal ADHD symptoms. These variables interacted with FI in predicting parenting practices. FI was associated with fathers' use of more effective discipline when fathers had ADHD symptoms and reported more love for their wives but was associated with fathers' use of less effective discipline when fathers reported having ADHD symptoms, when they reported less love for their wives, and when they identified highly with traditional roles. For mothers, FI was associated with less effective discipline practices when couples' child rearing views were dissimilar. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of kinship social support on the parenting experiences and psychosocial adjustment of African-American adolescents.

The association of kinship support with psychosocial adjustment and parenting practices for 125 African-American adolescents (52 boys and 73 girls) in Grades 9–12 from single- and 2-parent households was assessed. Findings reveal that kinship support was positively associated with adolescent adjustment and with authoritative parenting practices in single- but not 2-parent households. Results also indicate that parenting practices mediated the effects of kinship support. When the effects of authoritative parenting practices were controlled, significant relations found between kinship support and adolescent adjustment were no longer apparent. The importance of kinship support for the functioning of African-American families and adolescents was discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth

While research has well documented that urban youth are exposed to increasing rates of community violence, little is known about what increases risk for violence exposure, what protects children from exposure to violence, and what factors reduce the most negative outcomes associated with witnessing violence. This study expands on current research by evaluating the relations between exposure to violence, family relationship characteristics and parenting practices, and aggression and depression symptoms. Data were drawn from a sample of 245 African-American and Latino boys and their caregivers from economically disadvantaged inner-city neighborhoods in Chicago. Rates of exposure could not be predicted from family relationship and parenting characteristics, although there was a trend for discipline to be related. Exposure to community violence was related to increases in aggressive behavior and depression over a 1-year period even after controlling for previous status. Future studies should continue to evaluate the role of exposure to violence on the development of youth among different neighborhoods and communities. Implications for intervention and policy are discussed.     

Parenting stress, perceived parenting behaviors, and adolescent self-concept in European American families.

This study assesses whether the stresses associated with parenting a child are indirectly related to adolescent self-concept through parenting behaviors. We examined longitudinal associations among mothers' and fathers' parenting stress at age 10, children's perceptions of parenting at age 10, and adolescents' self-concept at age 14 in 120 European American families. Mothers' and fathers' parenting stress was related to children's perceptions of acceptance and psychologically controlling behavior, and psychologically controlling behavior (and lax control for fathers) was related to adolescent self-concept. We further examined which domains of parenting stress and perceived parenting behaviors were associated with adolescents' scholastic competence, social acceptance, physical appearance, and behavioral conduct. Parenting stress was related to specific parenting behaviors, which were, in turn, related to specific domains of self-concept in adolescence. Parenting stress appears to exert its effects on early adolescent self-concept indirectly through perceived parenting behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal emotional distress and diminished responsiveness: The mediating role of parenting efficacy and parental perspective taking.

The present study examined whether the inverse relation between maternal emotional distress and maternal responsiveness was mediated by mothers' parenting efficacy and parental perspective taking. Questionnaire and observational data were gathered from 94 nonclinical mother–adolescent dyads. Emotional distress was measured with multiple indicators of negative affectivity, and responsiveness was measured with self-report and observational indicators of maternal acceptance and psychological autonomy promotion. Analyses indicated that maternal emotional distress was associated with lower levels of mother- and adolescent-reported responsiveness. Moreover, the association was mediated by mothers' perceptions of their parenting efficacy. Processes by which emotional distress may affect parenting efficacy, parental perspective taking, and parenting were discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental perceptions of child behavior problems, parenting self-esteem, and mothers' reported stress in younger and older hyperactive and normal children.

40 parents of younger and older hyperactives (Hs; aged 5 yrs 1 mo and 8 yrs 4 mo, respectively) and 51 parents of age-matched normal controls completed measures of hyperactivity and child behavior, parenting self-esteem (PSE), and parenting stress. PSE was lower in parents of Hs than in parents of controls. Self-esteem related to skill/knowledge as a parent was age related, with parents of older Hs reporting the lowest levels; self-esteem related to valuing/comfort in the parenting role was not related to the child's age. Mothers of Hs, especially younger ones, reported markedly higher levels of stress associated with both child characteristics and their own feelings, such as depression, self-blame, and social isolation. Consistent inverse relationships were found between PSE and perceptions of child problems, whereas ratings of child disturbance and maternal stress were positively correlated. Findings are discussed in terms of the social contexts surrounding hyperactivity and the need for multidimensional assessments and interventions in families of Hs. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological distress as a mediator of the relation between perceived maternal parenting and normative maladaptive eating among adolescent girls.

Burgeoning research on the adolescent (e.g., middle-school) years suggests that this is a particularly vulnerable period for the development of maladaptive eating patterns. Prior research has established a link between perceptions of maternal parenting practices and adolescent onset of problematic eating behaviors. The authors hypothesized that adolescents' internalized psychological distress accounts for this relation, and they tested this hypothesis via a longitudinal, mediational study of 73 adolescent girls followed from 6th to 8th grade. Results of structural equation modeling using latent variables supported the hypothesis, identifying a time-ordered process that emphasizes the significance of the mother-adolescent relationship and the importance of targeting counseling interventions at improving parenting practices and helping adolescents to regulate negative affect as a means of preventing the development of maladaptive eating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Proneness to hypomania/mania symptoms or depression symptoms and asymmetrical frontal cortical responses to an anger-evoking event.

The behavioral approach system (BAS) reflects the propensity to respond to signals of reward, including stimuli associated with safety and goal-oriented attack (e.g., anger). Hypomania/mania has been posited to involve increased BAS activity. In contrast, depression has been posited to involve decreased BAS activity. Building on past research, which suggests that increased left frontal cortical activity is a neurophysiological index of BAS activity, the present research tested the hypotheses that proneness toward hypomania/mania symptoms would be related to increased relative left frontal activity and that proneness toward depression symptoms would be related to decreased relative left frontal activity in response to an anger-evoking event. Results from 67 individuals who had completed a measure of proneness toward these affective symptoms and were exposed to an anger-evoking event supported the hypotheses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal depression and parenting in relation to child internalizing symptoms and asthma disease activity.

This study tested a hypothesized model of the relationship between maternal depression and child psychological and physical dysfunction mediated by parenting and medication adherence. A sample of 242 children with asthma, aged 7 to 17, participated with their mothers. Maternal depression was assessed by self-report, and parenting was observed during family interaction tasks. Internalizing symptoms were assessed by self- and clinician reports. Asthma disease activity was assessed according to National Heart Lung and Blood Institute guidelines, and medication adherence was evaluated with a 24-hr recall method. Structural equation modeling indicated that negative parenting partially mediated the relationship between maternal depression and child internalizing symptoms. Child internalizing symptoms, in turn, mediated the associations between both maternal depression and negative parenting and asthma disease activity. Medication adherence did not mediate the link from maternal depression to disease activity. Thus, maternal depression was linked to child psychological dysfunction both directly and indirectly via negative parenting but linked to physical dysfunction only indirectly through psychological dysfunction. These findings suggest that diagnosing and treating depression in mothers of children with asthma would enhance child well-being both psychologically and physically. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social network and marital support as mediators and moderators of the impact of stress and depression on parental behavior.

Structural equation modeling was used with a sample of 451 2-parent families to test an elaboration of J. Belsky's (1984) model of the determinants of parental behavior. Results largely support the model. Economic pressure disrupted parenting by increasing depression and undermining access to spouse support. Spouse support had both a direct effect on parenting and an indirect influence through depression. For mothers, spouse support moderated the impact of economic strain on parenting by reducing the disruptive impact of depression on parental behavior. Social network support only influenced parenting indirectly through depression. There was no support for the idea that social network support serves to buffer parental behavior against the adverse consequences of economic strain, nor was there evidence that it can compensate for low spouse support. The findings indicated, however, that spouse support is a more powerful determinant of quality of parenting when social network support is low. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neighborhood Cohesion as a Buffer Against Hostile Maternal Parenting.

This study explored the moderating effects of children's neighborhoods on the link between hostile parenting and externalizing behavior. Participants were 1st- or 2nd-grade children in an urban northeastern community. Children were administered the Parenting and Neighborhood scales of the Child Puppet Interview, and mothers completed questionnaires on neighborhood quality and parenting practices. Census tract measures of neighborhood quality and teachers' reports of children's externalizing behavior also were obtained. Results indicated that children's and mothers' perceptions of neighborhood involvement-cohesion buffered the link between hostile parenting and externalizing problems. Children's externalizing behavior was unrelated to census tract variables. Findings highlight the protective effect of neighborhood social cohesion and the utility of including young children's perspectives in research on neighborhoods and families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Widening spheres of impact: The role of forgiveness in marital and family functioning.

This study examined relations between aspects of family functioning and positive and negative dimensions of forgiveness. Increased understanding of one's partner and decreased anger about betrayal characterize positive forgiveness, whereas experiences such as holding a grudge and desiring revenge indicate negative forgiveness. The sample included 87 wives and 74 husbands who reported experiencing a significant betrayal, their partners, and their adolescent children. Analyses of reported forgiveness revealed that more negative forgiveness was associated with lower marital satisfaction for husbands and wives; trust partially mediated this relationship for husbands and wives. Greater positive forgiveness reported by husbands and wives predicted their own reports of a stronger parenting alliance, whereas greater negative forgiveness reported by husbands and wives predicted their spouses' reports of a weaker parenting alliance. For wives, more negative forgiveness also predicted higher levels of children's perceived parental conflict, and parents' reported conflict mediated this association for wives. Findings suggest that forgiveness of a marital betrayal is significantly associated with marital satisfaction, the parenting alliance, and children's perceptions of parental marital functioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of marital quality in toddler development.

Examined associations among contemporaneous measures of marital quality, parenting attitudes and behavior, and toddler development in 75 2-parent families with a 20-mo-old child. Child–mother and child–father attachment was assessed in the Strange Situation procedure, and child task behavior was rated during a problem-solving task. Parents completed the Dyadic Adjustment Scale and questionnaires concerning parenting attitudes and perceptions. Independent observations were conducted for parental behavioral sensitivity and couple marital harmony. Findings support the hypothesis that good marital quality would be associated with optimal toddler functioning and sensitive parenting. The magnitude of effect was greater for marriage–parenting associations than for marriage–child associations. Differences in patterns of intercorrelation for mothers and fathers were found and direct and indirect associations between marital quality, parenting, and child development are discussed. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)