Rôle des fluides dans le comportement hydromécanique des roches fracturées hétérogènes: Caractérisation in situ et modélisation numérique

Hydromechanical coupled processes in a shallow fractured rock mass were investigated in situ through field experiments and numerical simulations. The experimental approach consists of performing simultaneous and multi-frequency measurements of fluid pressures and displacements at different points and on different fracture types within a carbonate reservoir. Two kinds of experiments were conducted at the Coaraze Laboratory Site (France):

1. At the fracture network scale, a global hydraulic loading by groundwater level change shows that the coupling between fluid flow and deformation is simultaneously governed by a dual-permeability hydraulic behaviour and a dual-stiffness mechanical behaviour. The following fluid flow and hydromechanical conceptual scheme was established: first, a transient flow only occurs in faults with high permeability; second, when a steady-state flow is reached in faults, water flows from faults into lower permeability bedding planes. The intact rock matrix is practically impervious but the connectivity between the discontinuities is high. When fluid pressure changes occur within the fracture network, the hydromechanical coupling is direct in the highly permeable faults where a pressure change induces a deformation change. No direct hydromechanical coupling occurs within the lower permeability zones where deformation is not directly correlated with pressure changes. This means that the mechanical deformation of the bedding planes and rock matrix is induced by the fault deformation.
2. At the single fracture scale, the hydromechanical behaviour was evaluated by performing hydraulic pulse injection testing. This test was monitored using high-frequency (f = 120 Hz) hydromechanical measurements conducted with innovative fiber-optic borehole equipment. The hydromechanical response is simultaneously monitored at two measuring points spaced about 1 m apart within the plane of the sub-vertical fracture. Observed fluid pressure versus normal displacement curves shows a characteristic loop-shaped evolution in which the paths for loading (pressure increase) and unloading (pressure decrease) are different. The test was evaluated by coupled hydromechanical modelling using a distinct element technique. By matching the loop behaviour, modelling indicates that the pulse pressure increase portion allows the fracture hydromechanical properties to be determined while the pulse pressure decrease portion is strongly influenced by the hydromechanical effects within the surrounding fractured rock mass. A sensitivity study shows that the key parameters to coupled hydromechanical processes in such fracture systems are the initial hydraulic aperture and normal stiffness of the fracture, the stiffness of the rock matrix and the geometry of the surrounding fracture network.

     

Estimation of REV size and three-dimensional hydraulic conductivity tensor for a fractured rock mass through a single well packer test and discrete fracture fluid flow modeling

A new methodology is presented to determine the representative elementary volume (REV) size and three-dimensional (3-D) hydraulic conductivity tensor for a fractured rock mass. First, a 3-D stochastic fracture network model was built and validated for a gneissic rock mass based on the fracture data mapped from scanline surveys at the site. This validated fracture network model was combined with the fracture data observed on a borehole to generate a stochastic-deterministic fracture network system in a cubic block around each packer test conducted at a different depth region in the same borehole. Each packer test was simulated numerically applying a developed discrete fracture fluid flow model to estimate the influenced region or effective range for the packer test. A cubic block of size 18 m, with the packer test interval of length about 6.5 m located at the centre of this block, was found to be suitable to represent the influenced region. Using this block size, the average flow rate per unit hydraulic gradient (defined as the transmissivity multiplied by mean width of flow paths) field for fractures was calibrated at different depth regions around the borehole by numerically simulating the packer tests conducted at different depth regions. The average flow rate per unit hydraulic gradient of the fractures that intersect the borehole was considered to be quite different to the average flow rate per unit hydraulic gradient of the fractures that do not intersect the borehole. A relation was developed to quantify the ratio between these two parameters. By studying the directional hydraulic conductivity behaviour of different cubic block sizes having the validated stochastic fracture network and calibrated hydraulic parameters, a REV for the hydraulic behaviour of the rock mass was estimated to be a block size of 15 m. The hydraulic conductivity tensor in 3-D computed through regression analysis using the calculated directional hydraulic conductivity values in many directions was found to be significantly anisotropic. The principal directions of the hydraulic conductivity tensor were found to be agreeable with the existing fracture system of the site. Further, the geometric hydraulic conductivity calculated was found to be comparable to the hydraulic conductivity estimated through the radial flow assumption in continuum porous media.     

Hydromechanical interactions in a fractured carbonate reservoir inferred from hydraulic and mechanical measurements

Hydromechanical coupled processes in a shallow fractured carbonate reservoir rock were investigated through field experiments coupled with analytical and numerical analyses. The experiments consist of hydraulic loading/unloading of a water reservoir in which fluid flow occurs mainly inside a heterogeneous fracture network made up of vertical faults and bedding planes. Hydromechanical response of the reservoir was measured using six pressure–normal displacement sensors located on discontinuities and two surface tiltmeters. A dual hydraulic behavior was characterized for low-permeability bedding planes well connected to high-permeability faults. Displacement responses show high-variability, nonlinear changes, sometimes with high-frequency oscillations, and a large scattering of magnitudes. Initial normal stiffnesses and effective normal stresses along fault planes were estimated in the field by interpreting pressure–normal displacement relations with a nonlinear function between effective normal stress and normal displacement. Two-dimensional discontinuum modeling with transient fluid flow was performed to fit measurements during hydraulic loading tests. Results show that the hydromechanical behavior of the reservoir is restored if a high stiffness contrast is allocated between low- and high-permeability discontinuities. Thus, a dual-permeability network of discontinuities will likely also be a contrasting stiffness network, in which the deformation of major flow-conducting discontinuities is significantly influenced by the stiffness of the surrounding less-permeable discontinuities.     

裂隙岩体渗流应力耦合机制研究

隧洞开挖前,岩体中的地下水与围岩应力处于一种相对平衡状态,由于隧洞的开挖,一方面使地下水排泄有了新的通道,加速了水循环,破坏了原有的补给一运移一排泄系统的平衡;另一方面,造成围岩应力重分布,部分结构面由于增压而闭合,部分岩体卸荷松弛或产生剪切滑移,人为破坏了原有的地下水渗流条件,使得隧洞自身成为地下水向外排泄的地下廊道...     

Composite wedge failure using photogrammetric measurements and DFN-DEM modelling

Analysis and prediction of structural instabilities in open pit mines are an important design and operational consideration for ensuring safety and productivity of the operation. Unstable wedges and blocks occurring at the surface of the pit walls may be identified through three-dimensional (3D) image analysis combined with the discrete fracture network (DFN) approach. Kinematic analysis based on polyhedral modelling can be used for first pass analysis but cannot capture composite failure mechanisms involving both structurally controlled and rock mass progressive failures. A methodology is proposed in this paper to overcome such limitations by coupling DFN models with geomechanical simulations based on the discrete element method (DEM). Further, high resolution photogrammetric data are used to identify valid model scenarios. An identified wedge failure that occurred in an Australian coal mine is used to validate the methodology. In this particular case, the failure surface was induced as a result of the rock mass progressive failure that developed from the toe of the structure inside the intact rock matrix. Analysis has been undertaken to determine in what scenarios the measured and predicted failure surfaces can be used to calibrate strength parameters in the model.     

岩体非连续裂隙网络三维面状渗流模型

模拟了一个野外实际入渗试验的岩体裂隙网络及其中的渗流。通过逆方法建立岩体三维裂隙网络模型,其指导原则是使模型能够再现野外通过露头和钻孔所观察到的裂隙现象。逆方法由于可以对模拟和实测裂隙进行相同条件统计抽样,因此避免了实测数据统计分析中复杂的误差矫正。裂隙面状渗流分析采用了任意多边形有限差分法。讨论了通过模型校正确定裂隙导水系数的方法,进行了随机模型重复实现,验证了模型的稳定性。     

Hydromechanical modelling of pulse tests that measure fluid pressure and fracture normal displacement at the Coaraze Laboratory site, France

In situ fracture mechanical deformation and fluid flow interactions are investigated through a series of hydraulic pulse injection tests, using specialized borehole equipment that can simultaneously measure fluid pressure and fracture displacements. The tests were conducted in two horizontal boreholes spaced 1 m apart vertically and intersecting a near-vertical highly permeable fault located within a shallow fractured carbonate rock. The entire test cycle, both the initial pressure increase and subsequent pressure fall-off, was carefully monitored and used for the evaluation of the in situ hydromechanical behaviour. The field data were modelled using both distinct-element and finite-element modelling techniques, in two and three dimensions. Field test data were evaluated by plotting fracture normal displacement as a function of fluid pressure, measured at the same borehole. The curves for the normal displacement of the fracture as a function of fluid pressure showed hysteresis loops, in which the paths for loading (pressure increase) and unloading (pressure decrease) are different. By matching this behaviour, the fracture normal stiffness and an equivalent stiffness (Young's modulus) of the surrounding rock mass were back-calculated. Evaluation of the field tests by coupled numerical hydromechanical modelling showed that the pressure-increase path of the normal displacement-versus-pressure curve is highly dependent on the hydromechanical parameters of the tested fracture and the stiffness of the matrix near the injection point, whereas the pressure-decrease path is influenced by mechanical processes within a larger portion of the surrounding fractured rock.     

海底隧道的非连续裂隙网络水文地质模型研究

研究目的在于强调利用非连续裂隙网络建立水文地质模型所需的核心方法,在特定场地,建立可行的水文地质模型在隧道的排水系统设计和建设中是非常必要的。根据水晶岩石上钻探的试验结果,建立了HydroDFN模型,通过观察到的破裂现象和导水参数进行集中调试,以确认导水的参数。通过HydroDFN模块,计算等效块渗透系数,并把计算出来的等效块渗透系数和现场测试数据加以分析和比较。     

Uncertainty in the maximum principal stress estimated from hydraulic fracturing measurements due to the presence of the induced fracture

The classical theory for hydraulic fracturing stress measurements assumes an ideal case with a linear elastic, homogenous, and isotropic medium; and a fracture that reopens distinctly when the minimum tangential borehole stress is exceeded. The induced fracture disturbs this ideal picture in several aspects, which are important for the evaluation of the maximum horizontal principal stress using the fracture reopening pressure. This disturbance can be attributed to the fracture normal stiffness and the initial hydraulic fracture permeability. In this paper, the hydraulic fracturing reopening test is studied by coupled hydromechanical modeling that takes into account an induced fracture that is incompletely closed. The result shows that with realistic equipment compliance, the apparent fracture reopening evaluated from the well-pressure is close to the magnitude of the minimum horizontal principal stress with little or no correlation to the maximum horizontal principal stress. This observation suggests that the determination of maximum principal stress by hydraulic fracturing using the reopening pressure is very uncertain.     

三维空间中非连续面对水力压裂影响的试验研究

油气储层常发育断层、天然裂缝、节理等非连续面,其产状、地应力状态对水力裂缝扩展路径会产生重要影响。尤其是在致密油气藏、页岩油气藏等储层中,其天然裂缝影响着水力压裂后的裂缝网络。利用真三轴水力压裂试验设备,模拟了水力裂缝在具有不同产状非连续面的人造岩体中的扩展行为,并分析了泵压曲线的特征。试验结果表明:水平主应力差存在临界值(5~7 MPa),小于该临界值,水力裂缝不可能穿透非连续面;非连续面走向角和地应力差异系数越大,水力裂缝越容易穿透非连续面;非连续面倾角跟水力裂缝的扩展行为没有明显的关系;穿透试验中的泵压曲线跟没穿透试验中的泵压曲线差别明显;压裂曲线峰值泵压均随水力裂缝中点到储层中非连续面的最短距离(简记为DNF)增大而递减。与非连续面的倾角相比,走向角是影响水力裂缝穿透行为的关键因素;准确预测油藏中水力裂缝扩展路径,有必要准确获取非连续面产状和三向地应力场;根据泵压曲线的特征,可判断水力裂缝是否穿透非连续面和定性的判断DNF,为油田现场评价水力压裂效果提供参考。     

裂隙岩体水力离散介质网络的建立

在基于拓扑学建立的几个简单定量规定上，建立了理论严谨、可操作性强的二维裂隙岩体水力离散介质网络生成算法。该算法能适应结构面几何和水力特征的复杂性，其结果给出了水力线元、水力节点以及它们排列组合形成的块体间的相互位置关系。     

致密灰岩储层压裂裂缝扩展形态试验研究

开发低孔、低渗的致密灰岩储层需要进行大规模的水力压裂。致密灰岩的成岩过程、矿物组成以及岩石力学性质与致密砂岩等储层差异很大,在不同应力状态以及施工参数条件下水力裂缝扩展形态有待研究。采用真三轴水力压裂试验系统对致密灰岩露头展开压裂物模试验,研究地应力差、压裂液黏度、变排量、酸处理等多种因素对水平井压裂裂缝扩展规律的影响。试验结果表明:当水平地应力差在2~8 MPa之间时,水力裂缝易于沟通天然裂缝形成复杂裂缝网络;压裂液黏度升高,会降低剪切滑移和滤失膨胀的可能性,从而降低裂缝的复杂程度;在走滑断层的应力状态下,即σ_Hσ_Vσ_h,容易形成水平缝,特别是当井眼方向沿着层理面时极易沿着层理起裂;变排量压裂可以激活更多的天然裂缝,有助于形成复杂的裂缝网络;酸液预处理裸眼井段能够显著降低破裂压力,随泡酸时间的增加,破裂压力下降幅度逐渐增大。研究成果为现场压裂施工提供参考。     

三维裂隙网络建模技术修正及其工程应用

三维裂隙网络建模技术是分析地下硐室围岩中裂隙分布规律的技术手段之一,可为硐室稳定性评价提供基础模型。本文以北山坑探设施围岩为研究对象,利用地表裂隙调查结果,分析裂隙产状、直径和密度的概率密度特征,采用蒙特卡洛方法构建三维裂隙网络模型,并通过围岩楔形体分析检验模型。继而引入硐室裂隙编录数据,修正模型参数和建模方法,建立具有高可信度的三维裂隙网络模型。最后,利用修正模型实现巷道尺寸设计和危险部位预测。上述研究修正了三维裂隙网络建模技术,并提出了模型在硐室围岩稳定性评价和辅助设计领域的应用方案,为我国高放废物处置地下实验室及类似工程的研发提供了技术支撑。     

单孔振荡式微水试验确定裂隙岩体各向异性渗透参数

 基于振荡式微水试验的原理和岩体渗透系数张量的基本表达式,提出单孔分段振荡式微水试验。研发一套由多功能探头、密封阀、操作屏和气压泵等组成的测试设备,在技术上实现了单孔内围岩成像、量测裂隙产状、探测水压和水温变化,并将信息实时传输到上位机数据采集系统。通过采集的试验数据信息和围岩裂隙信息编制参数计算软件,实现了单孔试验确定裂隙渗透系数、岩体渗透系数张量和裂隙贮水率的技术和方法。以实例形式介绍了单孔微水振荡试验现场确定裂隙导水系数、岩体渗透系数张量的具体步骤和方法。     

Thermally induced mechanical and permeability changes around a nuclear waste repository—a far-field study based on equivalent properties determined by a discrete approach

A numerical investigation is conducted on the impacts of the thermal loading history on the evolution of mechanical response and permeability field of a fractured rock mass containing a hypothetical nuclear waste repository. The geological data are extracted from the site investigation results at Sellafield, England.A combined methodology of discrete and continuum approaches is presented. The results of a series of simulations based on the DFN–DEM (discrete fracture network–distinct element method) approach provide the mechanical and hydraulic properties of fractured rock masses, and their stress-dependencies. These properties are calculated on a representative scale that depends on fracture network characteristics and constitutive models of intact rock and fractures. In the present study, data indicate that the large scale domain can be divided into four regions with different property sets corresponding to the depth. The results derived by the DFN–DEM approach are then passed on to a large-scale analysis of the far-field problem for the equivalent continuum analysis.The large-scale far-field analysis is conducted using a FEM code, ROCMAS for coupled thermo-mechanical process. The results show that the thermal stresses of fractured rock masses vary significantly with mechanical properties determined at the representative scale. Vertical heaving and horizontal tensile displacement are observed above the repository. Observed stress and displacement fields also shows significant dependency on how the mechanical properties are characterized. The permeability changes induced by the thermal loading show that it generally decreases close to the repository. However, change of permeability is small, i.e., a factor of two, and thermally induced dilation of fracture was not observed. Note that the repository excavation effects were not considered in the study.The work presented in this paper is the result of efforts on a benchmark test (BMT2) within the international co-operative projects DECOVALEX III and BENCHPAR.     

页岩水力压裂裂缝形态的试验研究

为深入认识页岩储层水力裂缝延伸规律及其空间形态,采用真三轴岩土工程模型试验机、压裂泵压伺服控制系统、Disp声发射定位系统和工业CT扫描技术,建立了一套室内页岩水力压裂大型物理模拟试验方法,并通过试验后页岩试样水力裂缝的延伸与空间展布规律,初步探讨了页岩水力压裂网状裂缝的形成机理。结果表明：裂缝延伸时泵压曲线典型的锯齿状波动与裂缝网络的形成密切相关,是页岩体积压裂的一个明显特征。页岩层理面的发育程度、泵压大小和地应力状态对裂缝形态有显著影响,水力裂缝在层理面内的分叉、转向进而沟通天然裂缝是形成裂缝网络的关键,而层理面过弱或过强都不利于网状裂缝的形成;对层理面胶结强度适中的地层,地应力对裂缝的延伸有较大影响;在低排量且维持较低泵压时,裂缝易于转向,且更易形成网状裂缝,而达到体积压裂。建立的页岩水力压裂物理模拟试验方法及试验结果可为页岩气压裂优化设计等提供技术支持。     

A new parameter to assess hydromechanical effects in single-hole hydraulic testing and grouting

Grouting or filling of the open voids in fractured rock is done by introducing a fluid (grout) through boreholes under pressure. The grout may be either a Newtonian fluid or a Bingham fluid. The penetration of the grout and the resulting pressure profile may give rise to hydromechanical effects, which depend on factors such as the fracture aperture, the pressure at the borehole, and the rheological properties of the grout. In this paper, we postulate that a new parameter, Å, which is the areal integral of the fluid pressure change over the fracture plane, is an appropriate measure to describe the change in fracture aperture volume due to a change in effective stress. In many cases, analytic expressions are available to calculate pressure profiles and the Å parameter. The approach is verified using a fully coupled hydromechanical simulator for the case of a Newtonian fluid. Results of the verification exercise show that the new approach is reasonable and that the Å parameter is a good measure for the fracture volume change: i.e., the larger the Å parameter, the larger the fracture volume change, in an almost linear fashion. To demonstrate the application of the approach, short duration hydraulic tests and constant pressure grouting are studied. It is concluded that using analytic expressions for penetration lengths and pressure profiles to calculate the Å parameter provides a possibility to describe a complex situation and compare, discuss and weigh the impact of hydromechanical couplings for different alternative grouting strategies. Further, the analyses identify an effect of high-pressure grouting, that of uncontrolled grouting of larger fractures and insufficient (or less-than-expected) sealing of finer fractures under certain grouting conditions.     

黄岛地下水封洞库库区三维裂隙网络模拟

 低渗透性的裂隙岩体是地下水封石油洞库建库的最佳选址区,裂隙网络模拟技术是研究离散裂隙渗流的有效手段。以黄岛地下水封洞库库区渗透性研究为出发点,在地表裂隙调查与钻孔裂隙统计的基础上,运用离散裂隙模拟软件DFN对洞库区进行三维裂隙网络模拟,得出模拟区导水系数分布图以及ZK13钻孔连通性分布图,通过将模拟结果与野外试验结果对比,认为模拟结果合理可信。实例分析表明,模拟结果能较为深刻地揭示裂隙水渗流的本质,可为后续的洞库水封效果及涌水量评价提供参考。     

页岩气储层变排量压裂的造缝机制

裂缝性页岩储层压裂时,如何通过调节压裂泵排量,使水力裂缝沟通更多天然裂缝,是缝网压裂的关键。选取龙马溪组页岩露头开展真三轴水力压裂试验,压裂过程中以逐步阶梯式方式提高排量,实时分析变排量压裂时水力裂缝扩展行为以及与天然裂缝的沟通情况。试验结果表明：采用变排量压裂,初始阶段,随着压力逐渐升高,会在井筒周围的弱面附近产生多个待破裂点,随排量突然提高会使水力裂缝沿着多个破裂点动态分叉扩展。随着排量阶梯式升高,泵压明显升高,排量越大,泵压波动越大,水力裂缝与天然裂缝沟通形态越复杂,天然裂缝产状和缝内净压力等影响到水力裂缝进一步沟通程度。试验结果证实,变排量压裂可以激活更多天然裂缝,有助于形成复杂裂缝网络。