Gendered social forces: A review of the impact of institutionalized factors on women and girls' criminal justice trajectories.

Increasing arrest rates for girls and women have been documented both nationally and internationally and have propelled the development of promising theories of female antisocial behavior and crime. Nonetheless, many psychological theories focus exclusively on individual characteristics of women that promote criminality. Fewer theorists incorporate the influence of institutional and social policy factors in models of female antisociality and criminal justice involvement, despite growing evidence supporting the impact of these institutional factors on female crime. The present review expands existing conceptualizations by reviewing evidence about the extent to which the response of the criminal justice system disproportionately affects women across four key institutional domains: (1) processing and sentencing decisions, (2) relabeling and responding to youth status offenses, (3) arrests for drug offenses, and (4) pro and dual arrests for domestic violence incidents. Evidence largely supports the existence of gendered practices in the institutional response of the justice system to female crime, in that institutional changes have disproportionately influenced women's involvement in the justice system or have otherwise resulted in consequences that are different for women than men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

正义与法益规制下的刑法解释——读张明楷教授《刑法分则的解释原理》

作为联结刑事立法和刑法适用桥梁的刑法解释,是实现正义和刑法目的的重要途径。发挥宏观指引作用的正义理念与起中观规制作用的法益的契合点是罪刑法定原则和罪刑均衡原则。刑法解释者应当心怀正义,围绕法益这一核心概念,在罪刑法定与罪刑均衡两大原则的制约下,目光往返于生活事实和刑法规范之间,充分运用各种刑法解释方法,从定罪与量刑方面对刑法条文做出最合理而圆满的解释,从而保护法益,促成刑法正义的实现。     

An examination of psychometric bias due to retesting on cognitive ability tests in selection settings.

Using a latent variable approach, the authors examined whether retesting on a cognitive ability measure resulted in measurement and predictive bias. A sample of 941 candidates completed a cognitive ability test in a high-stakes context. Results of both the within-group between-occasions comparison and the between-groups within-occasion comparison indicated that no measurement bias existed during the initial testing but that retesting induced both measurement and predictive bias. Specifically, the results suggest that the factor underlying the retest scores was less saturated with g and more associated with memory than the latent factor underlying initial test scores and that these changes eliminated the test's criterion-related validity. This study's implications for retesting theory, practice, and research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of The domestic assault of women: Psychological and criminal justice perspectives.

Reviews the book, The domestic assault of women: Psychological and criminal justice perspectives by Donald A. Dutton (1988). This book provides a comprehensive analysis of battered women and their husbands by integrating current theories and research on violence and victimization within a social psychological perspective. The book is divided into seven chapters. The first chapter outlines the current data on the incidence of wife assault and proposes a theoretical framework for understanding the problem. The next two chapters outline the theory and research available on men who assault their partners. Chapter four details the impact of violence on victims and provides some explanations for battered women becoming "prisoners" in their own home. Chapter five details the shortcomings of the criminal justice response to battered women. Chapter six provides some more optimistic information on treatment programs for violent husbands. The book ends with a section on future trends, including current research programs on children who witness violence in their homes. Overall, the book is well written and demonstrates Dutton's excellent analytical skills. He has an ability to integrate diverse theoretical models on family violence with current research studies in the field. His understanding of battered women and their husbands flows dramatically into the dismal record of the criminal justice system in providing a meaningful response to the problem. His analysis of current treatment programs offers some valuable insight to the reader on the most effective strategies for this population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender bias in diagnostic criteria for personality disorders: An item response theory analysis.

The authors examined gender bias in the diagnostic criteria for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text revision; American Psychiatric Association, 2000) personality disorders. Participants (N=599) were selected from 2 large, nonclinical samples on the basis of information from self-report questionnaires and peer nominations that suggested the presence of personality pathology. All were interviewed with the Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality (B. Pfohl, N. Blum, & M. Zimmerman, 1997). Using item response theory methods, the authors compared data from 315 men and 284 women, searching for evidence of differential item functioning in the diagnostic features of 10 personality disorder categories. Results indicated significant but moderate measurement bias pertaining to gender for 6 specific criteria. In other words, men and women with equivalent levels of pathology endorsed the items at different rates. For 1 paranoid personality disorder criterion and 3 antisocial criteria, men were more likely to endorse the biased items. For 2 schizoid personality disorder criteria, women were more likely to endorse the biased items. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Observational fear conditioning in the acquisition and extinction of attentional bias for threat: An experimental evaluation.

Anxious persons show automatic and strategic attentional biases for threatening information. Yet, the mechanisms and processes that underlie such biases remain unclear. The central aim of the present study was to elucidate the relation between observational threat learning and the acquisition and extinction of biased threat processing by integrating emotional Stroop color naming tasks within an observational differential fear conditioning procedure. Forty-three healthy female participants underwent several consecutive observational fear conditioning phases. During acquisition, participants watched a confederate displaying mock panic attacks (UCS) paired with a verbal stimulus (CS+), but not with a second nonreinforced verbal stimulus (CS-). As expected, participants showed greater magnitude electrodermal and verbal-evaluative (e.g., distress, fear) conditioned responses to the CS+ over the CS- word. Participants also demonstrated slower color-naming latencies to CS+ compared to the CS- word following acquisition and showed attenuation of this preferential processing bias for threat following extinction. Findings are discussed broadly in the context of the interplay between fear learning and processing biases for threat as observed in persons suffering from anxiety disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Diversity in in-group bias: Structural factors, situational features, and social functions.

Four experiments addressed the different forms and functions of in-group bias in different contexts. The authors proposed 2 functions: an identity-expressive function and an instrumental function (or promotion of positive social change). The authors manipulated status differentials, the stability of these differences, and the communication context (intra- vs. intergroup) and measured in-group bias and both functions. As predicted, identity expression via in-group bias on symbolic measures was most important for stable, high-status groups. By contrast, material in-group bias for instrumental motives was most prevalent in unstable, low-status groups but only when communicating with in-group members. This latter effect illustrates the strategic adaptation of group behavior to audience (i.e., displaying in-group bias may provoke the out-group and be counterproductive in instrumental terms). Stable, low-status groups displayed more extreme forms of in-group bias for instrumental reasons regardless of communication context (i.e., they had nothing to lose). Results are discussed in terms of a contextual-functional approach to in-group bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Camera perspective bias in videotaped confessions: Evidence that visual attention is a mediator.

Several experiments have demonstrated a camera perspective bias in evaluations of videotaped confessions: videotapes with the camera focused on the suspect lead to judgments of greater voluntariness than alternative presentation formats. The present research investigated potential mediators of this bias. Using eye tracking to measure visual attention, Experiment 1 replicated the bias and revealed that changes in camera perspective are accompanied by corresponding changes in duration of fixation on the suspect and interrogator. A path analysis indicated that visual attention partially mediated the bias, with at least one additional factor independently contributing to it. A proposed second factor was changes in available visual content that naturally coincide with alterations in camera perspective. Experiment 2 directly manipulated observers' focus and thus more conclusively established visual attention as one mediator of the camera perspective bias. Together the two experiments provide plausible evidence that differences in visual content may also mediate the bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical implications of attentional bias in anxiety disorders: An integrative literature review.

Research on information processing biases has been motivated by the hope that it would lead to new and more efficient psychotherapeutic interventions. The literature is abundant with empirical data of attentional biases toward threat stimuli in anxiety disorders. This article aims to review the existing literature on the topic of attentional bias in anxiety disorders and discuss important implications for clinical practice. We adopted an integrative approach to link research data on attentional bias, information processing, and cognitive accounts (automaticity and controllability) with clinical practice in cognitive-behavioral therapy. It is important to develop and apply therapeutic interventions that can effectively reduce negative attentional biases while treating the main problems associated with anxiety disorders. However, it remains to be seen whether cognitive therapy interventions targeting more voluntary, strategic information processing can have a positive impact on automatic, involuntary processing involved in attentional biases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Action embellishment: An intention bias in the perception of success.

Na?ve theories of behavior hold that actions are caused by an agent's intentions, and the subsequent success of an action is measured by the satisfaction of those intentions. However, when an action is not as successful as intended, the expected causal link between intention and action may distort perception of the action itself. Four studies found evidence of an intention bias in perceptions of action. Actors perceived actions to be more successful when given a prior choice (e.g., choose between 2 words to type) and also when they felt greater motivation for the action (e.g., hitting pictures of disliked people). When the intent was to fail (e.g., singing poorly), choice led to worse estimates of performance. A final experiment suggested that intention bias works independent from self-enhancement motives. In observing another actor hit pictures of Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama, shots were distorted to match the actor's intentions, even when it opposed personal wishes. Together these studies indicate that judgments of action may be automatically distorted and that these inferences arise from the expected consistency between intention and action in agency. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of The Young Offenders Act: A revolution in Canadian juvenile justice.

Reviews the book, The Young Offenders Act: A revolution in Canadian juvenile justice by Alan Leschied, Peter Jaffe, and Wayne Willis. The recent historical development of how we deal with young criminals in Canada is well covered in this book. For most of this century, the treatment of young offenders was governed by the Juvenile Delinquents Act (JDA). A product of the reform movements of the end of the 19th century, this act was based on the rationale that young criminals were wayward children whose antisocial behaviour was a reaction to deprivation and neglect. Unfortunately, over the years the JDA became in operation often oppressive, with little attention to due process, and a smothering concern for the welfare of its clients that enmeshed them in a net from which they could not easily escape. The "solution" to these problems was the Young Offenders Act (YOA), implemented during the past decade. The central theme of the first seven chapters of the book--about half of the total--is how the old Welfare assumptions have been replaced by a Junior Justice model. As detailed therein, accused young offenders are now given legal safeguards equivalent to those afforded to adults, with the same rules of evidence, guarantees of defence lawyers and legal aid, and definite fixed sentences if convicted. As one might have expected, the "Revolution in Canadian Juvenile Justice" claimed by the book's subtitle is often much more profound at the level of legal philosophy than on the front lines where real decisions about kids' lives have to be made. Old problems have been replaced by new ones, for example the precipitous drop in the number of convicted youths in psychological treatment programs. Clearly, the roles of both lawyers and psychologists within the System have changed with the adoption of the YOA, and the balance of power has shifted away from treatment. However, as is clear after reading this book, working procedures under the new act are not all fixed by the legislation; rather, some procedures could probably be altered relatively easily. As well, some minor changes in the legislation might make the entire system much more amenable to treatment. The JDA evolved over time, and so will the YOA. This volume can serve as a good starting position for one to consider what the YOA can become and how it can be directed in its evolution, rather than decrying the very dubious value of what it replaced. It will certainly be of interest to psychologists and other professionals in the criminal justice field. It could also serve as a good introduction to criminal justice issues for other readers with interests in adolescent behaviour. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal analysis of organizational fairness: An examination of reactions to tenure and promotion decisions.

Most organizational justice research takes a cross-sectional approach to examining the relationship between perceived fairness and individuals' attitudes. This study examines the effect of procedural and distributive justice over time. It is suggested that individuals acquire more information and experience with procedures and outcomes over time. These changes in information and experience affect the influence of procedural and distributive justice on organizational attitudes. Faculty perceptions of tenure and promotion decisions were assessed 3 times (preallocation, short-term postallocation, long-term postallocation) over a 2-year period. Results generally supported the hypotheses. Procedural justice was most influential prior to and soon after outcome decisions were made. Distributive justice was most influential 1 year later. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Psychology and Law: An Empirical Perspective.

Reviews the book Psychology and Law: An Empirical Perspective by Neil Brewer and Kipling D. Williams (Eds.) (see record 2005-07316-000). This book deals with a wide array of topics selected from the fields of developmental, social, and cognitive psychology that were chosen because of their relevance and applicability to issues in the criminal justice system. As the title implies, forensic practices can be understood (and ultimately enhanced) by research that addresses the scientific foundation of those practices. The editors deliver exactly what they promise, namely, empirical analyses of the various procedures and assumptions within the legal system. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Procedural justice climate and group power distance: An examination of cross-level interaction effects.

In this article, the authors extend research on the cross-level effects of procedural justice climate by theorizing and testing its interaction with group power distance. The results indicated that group power distance moderated the relationships between procedural justice climate and individual-level outcomes (organizational commitment and organization-directed citizenship behavior). More specifically, a larger group power distance was found to attenuate the positive cross-level effects of procedural justice climate. Implications for procedural justice climate research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Galileo bias: A naive conceptual belief that influences people's perceptions and performance in a ball-dropping task.

This research introduces a new naive physics belief, the Galileo bias, whereby people ignore air resistance and falsely believe that all objects fall at the same rate. Survey results revealed that this bias is held by many and is surprisingly strongest for those with formal physics instruction. In 2 experiments, 98 participants dropped ball pairs varying in volume and/or mass from a height of 10 m, with the goal of both balls hitting the ground simultaneously. The majority of participants in both experiments adopted a single strategy consistent with the Galileo bias, showing no improvement across trials. Yet, for participants reporting intentions of dropping both balls at the same time, the differences between release points were significantly greater than 0 ms. These findings support separate but interacting cognition and perception-action systems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Common ingroups and complex identities: Routes to reducing bias in multiple category contexts.

We tested the hypothesis that evaluative bias in common ingroup contexts versus crossed categorization contexts can be associated with two distinct underlying processes. We reasoned that in common ingroup contexts, self-categorization, but not perceived complexity, would be positively related to intergroup bias. In contrast, in crossed categorization contexts, perceived complexity, but not self-categorization, would be negatively related to intergroup bias. In two studies, and in line with predictions, we found that while self-categorization and intergroup bias were related in common ingroup contexts, this was not the case in crossed categorization contexts. Moreover, we found that perceived category complexity, and not self-categorization, predicted bias in crossed categorization contexts. We discuss the implications of these findings for models of social categorization and intergroup bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Demonstrations of implicit anti-fat bias: The impact of providing causal information and evoking empathy.

Three studies investigated implicit biases, and their modifiability, against overweight persons. In Study 1 (N=144), the authors demonstrated strong implicit anti-fat attitudes and stereotypes using the Implicit Association Test, despite no explicit anti-fat bias. When participants were informed that obesity is caused predominantly by overeating and lack of exercise, higher implicit bias relative to controls was produced; informing participants that obesity is mainly due to genetic factors did not result in lower bias. In Studies 2A (N=90) and 2B (N=63), participants read stories of discrimination against obese persons to evoke empathy. This did not lead to lower bias compared with controls but did produce diminished implicit bias among overweight participants, suggesting an in-group bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An age apart: The effects of intergenerational contact and stereotype threat on performance and intergroup bias.

An experimental study examined the effect of intergenerational contact and stereotype threat on older people's cognitive performance, anxiety, intergroup bias, and identification. Participants completed a series of cognitive tasks under high or low stereotype threat (through comparison with younger people). In line with stereotype threat theory, threat resulted in worse performance. However, this did not occur if prior intergenerational contact had been more positive. This moderating effect of contact was mediated by test-related anxiety. In line with intergroup contact theory, more positive contact was associated with reduced prejudice and reduced ingroup identification. However this occurred in the high threat, but not low threat, condition. The findings suggest that positive intergenerational contact can reduce vulnerability to stereotype threat among older people. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of the convergent and discriminant validity of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.

This study examined the factor structure of the parent and teacher versions of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; R. Goodman, 1997) with a sample of first-grade children at risk for educational failure. The 5-factor model previously found in studies using exploratory factor analysis was fit to the data for both parent and teacher questionnaires. Fit indices for both versions were marginally adequate. Model fit was comparable across gender and ethnic groups. Factor fit for the parent questionnaire was invariant across parent educational level. The examination of convergent and discriminant validity included peer evaluations of each SDQ construct. Thus, each of the five constructs was evaluated by three sources (parent, teacher, and child). On the basis of D. T. Campbell and D. W. Fiske's (1959) multitrait-multimethod approach as well as a confirmatory factor analysis using the correlated uniqueness model, the SDQ has good convergent validity but relatively poor discriminant validity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)