Effects of different modified underlayer surfaces on growth and optical properties of InGaN quantum dots

InGaN/GaN quantum dots were grown on the sapphire (0 0 0 1) substrate in a metalorganic chemical vapor deposition system. The morphologies of QDs deposited on different modified underlayer (GaN) surfaces, including naturally as grown, Ga-mediated, In-mediated, and air-passivated ones, were investigated by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Photoluminescence (PL) method is used to evaluate optical properties. It is shown that InGaN QDs can form directly on the natural GaN layer. However, both the size and distribution show obvious inhomogeneities. Such a heavy fluctuation in size leads to double peaks for QDs with short growth time, and broad peaks for QDs with long growth time in their low-temperature PL spectra. QDs grown on the Ga-mediated GaN underlayer tends to coalesce. Distinct transform takes place from 3D to 2D growth on the In-mediated ones, and thus the formation of QDs is prohibited. Those results clarify Ga and In's surfactant behavior. When the GaN underlayer is passivated in the air, and together with an additional low-temperature-grown seeding layer, however, the island growth mode is enhanced. Subsequently, grown InGaN QDs are characterized by a relatively high density and an improved Gaussian-like distribution in size. Short surface diffusion length at low growth temperature accounts for that result. It is concluded that reduced temperature favors QD's 3D growth and surface passivation can provide another promising way to obtain high-density QDs that especially suits MOCVD system.     

Photoluminescence study and parameter evaluation in InAs quantum dot-in-a-well structures

The photoluminescence (PL), its temperature and power dependences have been studied in InAs quantum dots (QDs) embedded in the symmetric In_0.15Ga_0.85As/GaAs quantum well (QW) with QDs grown at different temperatures (470-535 °C). The ground state (GS) PL peaks shift with increasing QD growth temperatures: the red shift is observed when temperature increased from 480 to 510 °C and the blue shift is typical when the temperature raised from 510 to 535 °C. The fitting procedure (on the base of Varshni relation) has been applied to the analysis of GS PL peak positions versus temperatures. Obtained fitting parameters are compared with corresponding data for the temperature variation of energy band gap in the bulk InAs crystal and in the In_0.21Ga_0.79As alloy. The comparison has revealed that the structures with QDs grown at 490-510 °C have the same fitting parameters as the bulk InAs crystal. However in structures with QDs grown at the temperatures 470, 525 and 535 °C the fitting parameters testify that Ga/In inter-diffusion between QDs and a QW has been realized. It is shown that the Ga/In inter-diffusion process is accompanied by the appearance of nonradiative recombination defects.     

Structural, optical and electrical study of undoped GaN layers obtained by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition on sapphire substrates

We investigate optical, structural and electrical properties of undoped GaN grown on sapphire. The layers were prepared in a horizontal reactor by low pressure metal organic chemical vapor deposition at temperatures of 900 °C and 950 °C on a low temperature grown (520 °C) GaN buffer layer on (0001) sapphire substrate. The growth pressure was kept at 10,132 Pa. The photoluminescence study of such layers revealed a band-to-band emission around 366 nm and a yellow band around 550 nm. The yellow band intensity decreases with increasing deposition temperature. X-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy studies show the formation of hexagonal GaN layers with a thickness of around 1 μm. The electrical study was performed using temperature dependent Hall measurements between 35 and 373 K. Two activation energies are obtained from the temperature dependent conductivity, one smaller than 1 meV and the other one around 20 meV. For the samples grown at 900 °C the mobilities are constant around 10 and 20 cm² V⁻¹ s^− 1, while for the sample grown at 950 °C the mobility shows a thermally activated behavior with an activation energy of 2.15 meV.     

Influences of silicon doping in quantum dot layers on optical characteristics of InAs/GaAs quantum dot infrared photodetector

We have investigated the effects of silicon doping concentration within thirty-period self-assembled quantum dot (QD) layers on quantum dot infrared photodetectors (QDIPs). The lens-shaped quantum dots with the dot density of 1 × 10¹¹ cm^− 2 were observed by atomic force microscope (AFM). From the high ratio of photoluminescence (PL) peak intensities from dot layer to that from wetting layer, we have concluded that high dot density caused the short diffusion length for carriers to be easily captured by QDs. Moreover, the Si-doped samples exhibited the multi-state transitions within the quantum dots, which were different to the single level transition of undoped sample. Besides, the dominant PL peaks of Si-doped samples were red-shifted by about 25 meV compared to that of the undoped sample. It should result from the dopant-induced lowest transition state and therefore, the energy difference should be equal to the binding energy of Si in InAs QDs.     

Area preferential nucleation of Ge nano-dots on nano-size porous silicon

The Ge quantum dots on anodized nanometer porous silicon layers are prepared by area preferential nucleation at a low temperature of 720°C. The porous silicon was formed by anodic conversion of p-type (1 0 0)-oriented crystalline silicon in hydrofluoric acid diluted by alcohol. Clear phonon-resolved PL, as a NP transition and its TA phonon replica, was observed from the Ge dots at the temperature of 10 K. We attributed the very large blue-shift in energy of the PL peak to the quantum size effect in Ge dots. The present technique is a potential low-cost method for producing quantum dot arrays.     

Structural properties of GaN and related alloys grown by radio-frequency magnetron sputter epitaxy

Single-crystalline layers of GaN and related alloys such as AlGaN and InGaN were grown on Al₂O₃ (0001) substrates by radio-frequency magnetron sputter epitaxy. The crystalline structures of these layers were studied as functions of substrate temperature, N₂ composition ratio in N₂/Ar mixture source gas and gas pressure during the growth. Surface structure of GaN layer depended on Ga/N ratio in flux density, and nitrogen-rich growth condition resulted in pyramid-type facet structure whereas Ga-rich growth produced flat surface. The crystalline quality of GaN layer improved at relatively low N₂ composition ratios, and the GaN layer grown at 30% N₂ condition was transparent and colorless. Al_xGa_1−xN layers with x = 0.06-0.08 and In_xGa_1−xN layers with x = 0.45-0.5, were obtained at 30-40% and 30-50% N₂ composition ratios, respectively. The AlN and InN molar fractions in these layers were considerably different from Al and In molar fractions in starting metal alloys (x = 0.15 in both Al_xGa_1−x and In_xGa_1−x alloys).     

Effect of post-growth rapid thermal annealing on bilayer InAs/GaAs quantum dot heterostructure grown with very thin spacer thickness

We have investigated the effect of post-growth rapid thermal annealing on self-assembled InAs/GaAs bilayer quantum dot samples having very thin barrier thickness (7.5-8.5 nm). In/Ga interdiffusion in the samples due to annealing is presumed to be controlled by the vertical strain coupling from the seed dots in bilayer heterostructure. Strain coupling from embedded seed QD layer maintains a strain relaxed state in active top islands of the bilayer quantum dot sample grown with comparatively thick spacer layer (8.5 nm). This results in minimum In/Ga interdiffusion. However controlled interdiffusion across the interface between dots and GaAs barrier, noticeably enhances the emission efficiency in such bilayer quantum dot heterostructure on annealing up to 700 °C.     

Sb-modified growth of stacked Ge/Si(100) quantum dots

We report on the Sb induced modifications of the morphology of self assembled Ge/Si(100) quantum dot stacks in a Si matrix grown by a molecular beam epitaxy. It is shown that the size of the quantum dots in the stack and the Si spacer layer uniformity inside the stack are regulated by the amount of deposited Sb. We consider the thin Sb layer at the Ge/Si growth interface as a factor limiting the surface migration of Si and Ge ad-atoms. The surface diffusion coefficients of Si ad-atom on uncovered pyramid shaped Ge island and on a Ge island covered by a single monolayer of Sb are estimated to be 2.4 μm²s⁻¹ and 2.3 × 10⁻⁴ μm²s⁻¹ at a temperature of 600 °C, correspondingly. Based on this remarkable reduction of surface diffusion the morphology of the surface can be preserved when the growth is continued after the single monolayer of Sb is at the surface.     

Role of the crystallinity of ZnO films in the electrical properties of bottom-gate thin film transistors

The strong correlation between the microstructural characteristics of ZnO channel layers grown at various temperatures by radio-frequency magnetron sputtering and the electrical performances of resulting bottom-gate thin film transistors (TFTs) was reported. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that increasing growth temperature enhanced degree of c-axis preferred orientation and enlarged width of columns in the ZnO films. The ZnO channel layers grown at 250 and 350 °C exhibited TFT saturation behavior. However, growing them at ≥ 350 °C produced small grains in the junctions of ZnO/SiO₂ interface and grain boundaries, which led to hump behavior in TFT transfer curve caused by formation of additional boundaries.     

Highly c-axis oriented AlN layers grown on c-plane sapphire substrates by radio-frequency sputter epitaxy at 1080 °C

Aluminum nitride (AlN) single-crystalline layers were grown on c-plane sapphire substrates by radio-frequency magnetron sputter epitaxy using N₂/Ar mixture ambient gas and 5-N grade Al target. The crystalline structures of the AlN layers depending on substrate temperature and N₂ composition ratio in ambient gas, were predominantly studied. The crystalline quality of the AlN layer was improved by elevating substrate temperature, and the full-widths at half-maximum (FWHMs) of X-ray rocking curves (XRC) for both symmetric and asymmetric planes of AlN layers grown at N₂ composition ratio of around 25%, became low. The FWHMs of XRC for (0002) diffraction of the AlN layers grown at 1080 °C, were less than 20 arcsec. The surface root-mean-square roughness of such highly c-axis oriented AlN layer was determined by atomic force microscopy, and was increased from 0.6 nm to 1.3 nm when AlN layer thickness was varied from 0.15 to 0.7 μm.     

Evolution of the optical transitions in AlxGa1 − xAs/GaAs quantum well structures grown on GaAs buffers with different surface treatments by molecular beam epitaxy

Al_0.3Ga_0.7As/GaAs Quantum Well structures were grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) on a 500 nm thick GaAs buffer layer subjected to the following surface processes: a) in-situ Cl₂ etching at 70 °C and 200 °C, b) air-exposure for 30 min. The characteristics of these samples were compared to those of a continuously grown sample with no processing (control sample). We obtained the quantum wells energy transitions using photoreflectance spectroscopy as a function of the temperature (8-300 K), in the range of 1.2 to 2.1 eV. The sample etched at 200 °C shows a larger intensity of the quantum well peaks in comparison to the others samples. We studied the temperature dependence of the excitonic energies in the quantum wells (QWs) as well as in GaAs using three different models; the first one proposed by Varshni [4], the second one by Viña et al. [5], and the third one by Pässler and Oelgart [6]. The Pässler model presents the best fitting to the experimental data.     

Effect of annealing on the characteristics of Au layers grown on the high-temperature deposited Ni50Fe50 layers

80 nm-thick Ni₅₀Fe₅₀ layers were sputter-deposited on glass substrates at 400 °C and then Au layers were sputter-deposited on the Ni₅₀Fe₅₀ layers. The Au/Ni₅₀Fe₅₀ bilayer films were annealed in a vacuum of 5×10⁻⁴ Pa from 250 to 450 °C for 30 min or 90 min. The characteristics of the Au layers were studied by Auger electron spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and a four-point probe technique. When the annealing temperature reaches 450 °C, Fe and Ni atoms diffuse markedly into the Au layer and the Fe content is more than the Ni content. When the annealing temperature is lower than 450 °C, the grain size of the Au layers does not change markedly with annealing temperature. However, as the annealing temperature reaches 450 °C, the annealing promotes the grain growth of the Au layer. As the annealing temperature exceeds 300 °C, the resistivity of the bilayer films increases with increasing annealing temperature. The diffusion of Fe and Ni atoms into the Au layer results in an increase in the resistivity of the annealed bilayer film. Large numbers of Fe and Ni atoms diffusing into the Au layer of the annealed Au/Ni₅₀Fe₅₀ bilayer film lead to a significant decrease in the lattice constant of the Au layer.     

The role of the annealing temperature on the optical and structural properties of Eu doped GaN/AlN QD

Self assembled molecular beam epitaxy grown GaN quantum dots stacked with AlN spacers were implanted with Eu ions. The as-implanted samples were further submitted to thermal annealing treatments in nitrogen, between 1000 °C and 1200 °C. Eu³⁺ luminescence was observed in all samples with the most intense emission assigned to the ⁵D₀ → ⁷F₂ transition in the red spectral region. The preferential excitation paths of Eu³⁺ luminescence is explored using photoluminescence excitation measurements which allow us to identify the feeding mechanisms for the Eu³⁺ ions inside the GaN quantum dots and AlN host. Optically active Eu centres in both GaN QD and AlN layers could be identified. For low implantation fluence the Eu centres inside GaN QD are dominant while for high fluences the emission arises from Eu in the AlN layers. The annealing temperature, on the other hand, does not cause any change in the local environment of the Eu-ions.     

High quality Ge epitaxial layers on Si by ultrahigh vacuum chemical vapor deposition

Flat, relaxed Ge epitaxial layers with low threading dislocation density (TDD) of 1.94 × 10⁶ cm^− 2 were grown on Si(001) by ultrahigh vacuum chemical vapor deposition. High temperature Ge growth at 500 °C on 45 nm low temperature (LT) Ge buffer layer grown at 300 °C ensured the growth of a flat surface with RMS roughness of 1 nm; however, the growth at 650 °C resulted in rough intermixed SiGe layer irrespective of the use of low temperature Ge buffer layer due to the roughening of LT Ge buffer layer during the temperature ramp and subsequent severe surface diffusion at high temperatures. Two-dimensional Ge layer grown at LT was very crucial in achieving low TDD Ge epitaxial film suitable for device applications.     

Effect of thin intermediate-layer of InAs quantum dots on the physical properties of InSb films grown on (001) GaAs

In this study the formation of a semiconducting InSb layer, preceded by the growth of an intermediate layer of InAs quantum dots, is attempted on (001) GaAs substrate. From the analysis of atomic-force-microscopy and transmission-electron-microscopy images together with Raman spectra of the InSb films, it is found that there exists a particular layer-thickness of ~ 0.5 μm above which the structural and transport qualities of the film are considerably enhanced. The resultant 2.60-μm-thick InSb layer, grown at the substrate temperature of 400 °C and under the Sb flux of 1.5 × 10^− 6 Torr, shows the electron mobility as high as 67,890 cm²/Vs.     

Post-growth annealing of type-II GaSb/GaAs quantum dots grown with different V/III ratios

We report the influence of V/III beam-equivalent-pressure ratios and post-growth annealing on the photoluminescence of GaSb quantum dots grown on GaAs(1 0 0) by molecular beam epitaxy. Increasing the V/III beam-equivalent-pressure ratio from 3 to 5 and then to 7 results in decreased photoluminescence intensity and redshifts the photoluminescence wavelength. The post-growth annealing blueshifts the quantum dot photoluminescence emission and decreases the full-width-at-half-maximum of the photoluminescence peak when annealing temperature is increased above 800 °C. The blueshift behavior is found to be independent on the V/III ratios indicating a similar atomic interdiffusion mechanism for all investigated samples regardless of the quantum dot properties. The photoluminescence intensities of the three samples experience an increase after moderate annealing. Whereas the intensity of the sample with the highest V/III ratio further increases, the intensity of the sample with lower V/III ratios decreases again upon higher annealing steps above 900 °C. Furthermore, temperature- and power dependent photoluminescence measurements are performed on as-grown and 870 °C annealed samples with V/III ratios of 3 and 7 in order to study the reduced quantum dot confinement in more detail.     

Al and Ti/Al contacts on n-GaN

Al(60 nm) and Ti(40 nm)/Al(160 nm) metal layers have been deposited by thermal evaporation onto n-GaN epitaxial layers grown by metal organic chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD) on a c-plane sapphire substrate. The samples have been annealed at 300, 400, 700 or 900 °C for 10 min in vacuum. The microstructural and electrical properties of the contacts have been investigated by electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and by current-voltage measurements. As-deposited Al and Ti/Al contacts were rectifying with Schottky barrier heights below 0.35 eV and 0.38 eV, respectively. After heat treatment at 300 °C and 400 °C both contacts exhibited linear current-voltage characteristics. After annealing at 700 °C Al contacts became rectifying with a barrier height of 0.42 eV, while Ti/Al contacts remained nearly linear at the same temperature. The electrical characteristics and XRD analysis indicated that the upper metal in Ti/Al contact diffused in the Ti layer already during deposition. Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy revealed that in the case of Ti/Al contacts, the continuity of the Ti layers ceased when annealing above 700 °C. X-ray diffractions showed, that a Ti₂N interface phase formed in Ti/Al contacts at 700 and 900 °C, and an AlN interface phase developed in the same contact at 900 °C.     

Sb mediated formation of Ge/Si quantum dots: Growth and properties

The phenomenon of surfactant (Sb) mediated formation of Ge/Si(100) islands (quantum dots) by means of molecular beam epitaxy is discussed. The limited diffusivity of Si and Ge adatoms caused by the Sb layer leads to a reduction of the size of Ge islands, the increase in the island density, and the sharpening of the interfaces of Ge islands. Thereby, a thin Sb layer is considered to be a powerful tool that provides more freedom in designing Ge quantum dot features. Ge quantum dots, grown via a thin Sb layer and embedded coherently in a Si p-n junction, are revealed to be the origin of the intense photo- and electroluminescence in the spectral range of about 1.5 μm at room temperature.     

Temperature effects on the growth and electrical properties of Er2O3 films on Ge substrates

Er₂O₃ films were grown on Ge (001) substrates at different temperatures by molecular beam epitaxy using metallic Er and molecular oxygen sources with otherwise identical conditions. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy were used to characterize the microstructures and compositions of the films. The film deposited at room temperature is found to be composed of an Er₂O₃ layer and an ErGe_xO_y interface layer with a thickness of 5.5 nm; the film grown at 300 °C has a mixed structure of Er₂O₃ and ErGe_xO_y and the thickness was found to be reduced to 2.2 nm; the film grown at 450 °C becomes much rougher with voids formed underneath the film, having a mixed structure of three compounds of Er₂O₃, GeO and ErGe_xO_y. The growth mechanisms of the films at different temperatures are suggested. Current images obtained by tunneling atomic force microscopy show that the film grown at 450 °C has much more leaky spots than those grown at RT and 300 °C, which may arise from the formation of volatile GeO in the film.     

Deep level centers in InGaN/GaN heterostructure grown on sapphire and free-standing GaN

Deep level transient spectroscopy has been used to characterize the deep levels in InGaN/GaN grown on sapphire substrate as well as on free-standing GaN. The deep levels at E_c − E_t ∼ 0.17-0.23 eV and E_c − E_t ∼ 0.58-0.62 eV have been detected in our samples which are present in GaN samples reported by others. These two deep levels have been attributed by us to threading dislocations as they exhibit logarithmic capture kinetic behavior and are found to be substantially reduced in its trap concentration (∼ from 10¹⁴ to 10¹² cm^− 2) in GaN grown on free-standing GaN template. Other than the two deep levels, an additional level at E_c − E_t ∼ 0.40-0.42 eV has been identified in both samples, which is believed to be related to In segregation. AFM image shows region of pits formation in InGaN epilayer for sample grown on u-GaN using sapphire substrate while the latter gives a much smoother morphology. From the X-ray diffraction space mapping, the mosaicity of the sample structure for both samples were studied. Dislocations do not play a significant role in the structural properties of InGaN grown on free-standing GaN since the FWHM based on the Δ ω is relatively small (± 0.15°) in the case of InGaN/GaN on free-standing GaN substrate as compared to that on sapphire (± 0.35°). The wider spread in Δω-2θ value for InGaN layer on free-standing GaN also suggested the effect of compositional pulling with increasing InGaN layer thickness.