Frequency multiplexed superconducting quantum interference device readout of large bolometer arrays for cosmic microwave background measurements

A technological milestone for experiments employing transition edge sensor bolometers operating at sub-Kelvin temperature is the deployment of detector arrays with 100s-1000s of bolometers. One key technology for such arrays is readout multiplexing: the ability to read out many sensors simultaneously on the same set of wires. This paper describes a frequency-domain multiplexed readout system which has been developed for and deployed on the APEX-SZ and South Pole Telescope millimeter wavelength receivers. In this system, the detector array is divided into modules of seven detectors, and each bolometer within the module is biased with a unique ～MHz sinusoidal carrier such that the individual bolometer signals are well separated in frequency space. The currents from all bolometers in a module are summed together and pre-amplified with superconducting quantum interference devices operating at 4 K. Room temperature electronics demodulate the carriers to recover the bolometer signals, which are digitized separately and stored to disk. This readout system contributes little noise relative to the detectors themselves, is remarkably insensitive to unwanted microphonic excitations, and provides a technology pathway to multiplexing larger numbers of sensors.     

Electrical and optical measurements on the first SCUBA-2 prototype 1280 pixel submillimeter superconducting bolometer array

SCUBA-2 is a submillimeter camera being built for the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope in Hawaii. Bringing CCD style imaging to the submillimeter for the first time, with over 10000 pixels, it will provide a revolutionary improvement in sensitivity and mapping speed. We present results of the first tests on a prototype 1280 pixel SCUBA-2 subarray; the full instrument will be made up of eight such subarrays. The array is made up of transition edge sensor (TES) detectors, with Mo/Cu bilayers as the sensing element. To keep the number of wires reasonable, a multiplexed readout is used. Unlike previous TES arrays, an in-focal plane multiplexer configuration is used, in which the multiplexing elements are located beneath each pixel. To achieve the required performance, the detectors are operated at a temperature of approximately 120 mK. We describe the results of a basic electrical and optical characterization of the array, demonstrating that it is fully operational. Noise measurements were made on several pixels and gave a noise equivalent power below 2.5 x 10(-17) W HZ(-0.5), within the requirements for SCUBA-2. The construction of the testbed used to carry out these measurements is also described.     

Use of quantum-point-contact high-electron-mobility-transistors for time domain multiplexing of large arrays of high impedance low temperature bolometers

The use of a multiplexing readout for an array of bolometers simplifies the electronics and wiring, so making the readout of large arrays of bolometers (>100) feasible. Here we describe a time domain multiplexing technique and its performance based on the use of quantum-point-contact high-electron-mobility-transistors as low temperature (to approximately 100 mK) switches for measuring high impedance (5...70 MOmega) resistances and sensors. The presented system is well matched to ground based millimetric astronomy demands.     

Hot-electron bolometer terahertz mixers for the Herschel Space Observatory

We report on low noise terahertz mixers (1.4-1.9 THz) developed for the heterodyne spectrometer onboard the Herschel Space Observatory. The mixers employ double slot antenna integrated superconducting hot-electron bolometers (HEBs) made of thin NbN films. The mixer performance was characterized in terms of detection sensitivity across the entire rf band by using a Fourier transform spectrometer (from 0.5 to 2.5 THz, with 30 GHz resolution) and also by measuring the mixer noise temperature at a limited number of discrete frequencies. The lowest mixer noise temperature recorded was 750 K [double sideband (DSB)] at 1.6 THz and 950 K DSB at 1.9 THz local oscillator (LO) frequencies. Averaged across the intermediate frequency band of 2.4-4.8 GHz, the mixer noise temperature was 1100 K DSB at 1.6 THz and 1450 K DSB at 1.9 THz LO frequencies. The HEB heterodyne receiver stability has been analyzed and compared to the HEB stability in the direct detection mode. The optimal local oscillator power was determined and found to be in a 200-500 nW range.     

用于大气临边探测的高光谱成像仪研制

用于大气临边探测的高光谱成像仪是一种探测大气痕量气体的新型空间光学遥感仪器。分析了利用高光谱成像仪进行大气临边探测的原理,设计并研制了一台紫外/可见高光谱成像仪原理样机,该样机光学系统由前置望远系统和改进的Czerny-Turner光谱成像系统组成,工作谱段为280～390 nm和560～780 nm,通过转轮切换紫外、可见滤光片分别探测这2个波段。高光谱成像仪原理样机质量为15 kg,体积500 mm×350 mm×200 mm。对该样机的性能进行了检测并测量了低压汞灯的光谱。性能检测结果表明,空间分辨力为0.44 mrad,光谱分辨力为1.3 nm,均满足设计指标要求。该样机结构紧凑、质量小,在空间大气痕量气体探测领域有广泛的应用前景。     

16MnR钢和15MnVR钢在碳酸盐环境中的应力腐蚀研究

采用楔形张开加载（WOL）恒位移预裂纹试样研究了16MnR钢和15MnVR钢在碳酸盐环境中的抗应力腐蚀性能。试验选择常温、90℃和150℃分别在两种碳酸盐浓度下加载不同应力强度因子K1,经一定时间的应力腐蚀试验,测得各试样的扩展速率处于10^-7～10^-8mm／s之间,结果表明两种材料在所选碳酸盐浓度下裂纹基本没有扩展,其应力强度因子临界值KISCC分别不小于126和116MPa√m。同时采用扫描电镜和能谱技术对断口和试样表面膜进行了相应的观察和理论分析。总体而言,这两种材料在单一的碳酸盐溶液中应力腐蚀敏感性较低。     

A readout for large arrays of microwave kinetic inductance detectors

Microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) are superconducting detectors capable of counting single photons and measuring their energy in the UV, optical, and near-IR. MKIDs feature intrinsic frequency domain multiplexing (FDM) at microwave frequencies, allowing the construction and readout of large arrays. Due to the microwave FDM, MKIDs do not require the complex cryogenic multiplexing electronics used for similar detectors, such as transition edge sensors, but instead transfer this complexity to room temperature electronics where they present a formidable signal processing challenge. In this paper, we describe the first successful effort to build a readout for a photon counting optical/near-IR astronomical instrument, the ARray Camera for Optical to Near-infrared Spectrophotometry. This readout is based on open source hardware developed by the Collaboration for Astronomy Signal Processing and Electronics Research. Designed principally for radio telescope backends, it is flexible enough to be used for a variety of signal processing applications.     

高灵敏度实时定标微波辐射计

本文提出了一种新形式的微波辐射计,即实时定标微波辐射计。这种体制的微波辐射计具有的特点是：不受增益波动的影响,不受本机噪声变化的影响,能够提供连续的定标,动态范围宽等。本文作者制作了一台Ｃ波段实时定标微波辐射计,积分时间为０．６ｓ,灵敏度为０．２Ｋ,线性度为０．９９９０,适应于地面、机载及星载微波遥感。     

Calibration system with cryogenically-cooled loads for cosmic microwave background polarization detectors

We present a novel system to calibrate millimeter-wave polarimeters for cosmic microwave background (CMB) polarization measurements. This technique is an extension of the conventional metal mirror rotation approach, however, it employs cryogenically-cooled blackbody absorbers. The primary advantage of this system is that it can generate a slightly polarized signal (～100 mK) in the laboratory; this is at a similar level to that measured by ground-based CMB polarization experiments observing a ～10 K sky. It is important to reproduce the observing condition in the laboratory for reliable characterization of polarimeters before deployment. In this paper, we present the design and principle of the system and demonstrate its use with a coherent-type polarimeter used for an actual CMB polarization experiment. This technique can also be applied to incoherent-type polarimeters and it is very promising for the next-generation CMB polarization experiments.     

Compact terahertz passive spectrometer with wideband superconductor-insulator-superconductor mixer

We developed a compact terahertz (THz) spectrometer with a superconductor-insulator-superconductor (SIS) mixer, aiming to realize a portable and highly sensitive spectrometer to detect dangerous gases at disaster sites. The receiver cryostat which incorporates the SIS mixer and a small cryocooler except for a helium compressor has a weight of 27 kg and dimensions of 200 mm × 270 mm × 690 mm. In spite of the small cooling capacity of the cryocooler, the SIS mixer is successfully cooled lower than 4 K, and the temperature variation is suppressed for the sensitive measurement. By adopting a frequency sweeping system using photonic local oscillator, we demonstrated a spectroscopic measurement of CH(3)CN gas in 0.2-0.5 THz range.     

A High-Sensitivity System for Cathodoluminescent Studies with the Camebax Electron Probe Microanalyzer

Our system for cathodoluminescent studies incorporates two optical spectrometers for the near UV, visible, and IR regions; an optical system for cathodoluminescent imaging; an electron-beam deflection system; and a sample-stage cooler. The optical spectrometers are integrated with a Camebax electron probe microanalyzer. Cathodoluminescent spectrometers are substituted for the binocular viewer. They are similar in optical arrangement and differ only in their diffraction-grating parameters. The spectrometers have high spectral resolution (0.1 nm) and sensitivity, are compact (40 × 30 cm) and lightweight (5 kg), and may therefore be mounted directly on the microanalyzer column. The system is able to record spectra by modulating the electron beam and in the time-resolving mode, and to analyze changes in the intensity of emission bands with a time resolution as high as 2 s. A photographic attachment is used to form an image (in natural colors) of the distribution of structuraldefects and other inhomogeneities in a sample with a magnification of 100 to 600 power. The use of a sample-stage cooler allows measurements to be made at temperatures ranging from 80 K to room temperature.     

Impacts of inflow conditions on the measurement stability of a turbulence-mitigation based liquid concentration detection system

Liquid concentration plays an important role in many industrial processes. We designed a concentration detection system based on the principle of differential pressure, and introduced a turbulence elimination structure (TES) to improve the internal flow field. In order to explore the influence mechanism of the internal flow field on the detection, two models were used for numerical simulation under different working conditions. The results show that TES can effectively restrain the velocity fluctuation and turbulence intensity change of the flow field in the observation trough, thus forming a good measurement environment. The experimental results show that the measurement signal of the model with TES is more stable, and a stable detection area is formed between sensor 1 and sensor 3, which can be used for efficient detection of the sensor system. For the model with TES, the optimal speed range of 0.3–0.8 m/s was determined through experiments.     

保持制冷接收机真空窗口干燥的充气系统

微波接收机系统是射电天文观测不可或缺的信号接收设备。通过制冷可以很大程度上降低接收机的噪声温度,从而提高接收机的灵敏度。在接收机制冷后,杜瓦内外温差达200 K以上。由于1.3 cm波段接收机的特殊设计,空气中的水汽会在真空窗处与低温密封薄膜直接接触从而遇冷凝结,这将会影响接收机的接收性能。因此,1.3 cm波段接收机在真空窗外围设计一个干空气腔体,通过充气系统给该腔体时刻注入新鲜、干燥的空气,用小的泄漏来排除腔体内部陈旧气体。这样,真空窗与外界就始终被干燥的空气隔离开,从而避免了水汽在该位置的遇冷凝结。     

改进的灵敏度矩阵法在离轴望远镜装调中的应用

为了在较大失调范围内准确求解离轴梅逊式无焦卡塞格林望远镜元件的失调量,提出了基于改进的灵敏度矩阵模型的计算机辅助装调方法。分析了传统灵敏度矩阵法的原理及局限性,并在传统方法的数学模型中加入二次修正项,对传统计算机辅助装调技术进行了改进。针对离轴望远镜系统,分析了次镜失调状态下系统的像差特性,分别采用改进模型和传统模型对系统失调量与像差间的映射关系进行近似,并对失调望远镜系统进行仿真装调。仿真装调结果表明:在次镜偏心为±8mm、倾斜为±1.5°的失调范围内,传统方法计算得到的次镜x、y、z偏心量和α、β倾斜量均方根误差分别是:2.689mm、2.494mm、0.194mm和0.500°、0.525°;而改进方法对应的计算结果为:0.404mm、0.323mm、0.047mm和0.064°、0.065°,显示改进后的灵敏度矩阵方法的失调量求解准确度大幅优于传统方法。最终,采用改进方法对望远镜进行装调,得到了轴上视场波像差(均方根值RMS)为0.056λ(λ=632.8nm),边缘视场波像差RMS均优于0.1λ的良好装调结果。得到的结果满足设计要求。     

Fast variance calculation of polyreference least-squares frequency-domain estimates

One major drawback of the PolyMAX estimator, a polyreference least-squares frequency-domain estimator, is the lack of confidence bounds on the estimated modal parameters. This paper proposes a fast two-step approach to determine the variances on the estimated polynomial parameters and next on the resonance frequencies and damping ratios. The approach is based on the linearization of the sensitivity of the modal parameters to the noise variance. This noise variance (explicitly or as the coherence function) is assumed to be known a priori. The approach is tested on simulations and real-life measurements.     

Pulsed interferometric calorimetry

The possibility of using semiconductor single crystals (Si, GaP, etc.) as calorimeters for pulsed heat flux measurements is discussed. The method of laser interferometric thermometry in the reflected light at a wavelength of 1.15 μm makes it possible to detect changes δθ≈2×10⁻⁵ K in the temperature of a 1-mm-thick Si single crystal. The sensitivity of a calorimeter with laser readout is sufficient for detection of the absorbed energy δE≈15 μJ/cm² and is independent of the Si plate thickness. The method for selecting the working point in the resonance curve for achieving maximum sensitivity in detection of pulse fluxes is discussed.     

Non-contact measurement of displacer motion of a miniature split-Stirling cryocooler

A relative displacement measurement method is originally proposed to calibrate the static sensitivity of the measurement of displacer motion inside the cold finger of a split-type Stirling cryocooler. This measurement is non-contact and non-destructive by the use of the well-known linear variable-differential transformer (LVDT). Therefore the cooler operates in normal conditions without any interference, such as loading effects, from the measurement. The true displacement of the displacer is the product of the output voltage from the LVDT and the calibrated static sensitivity. Since the displacer motion consists of multiple sinusoidal signals and its oscillation center drifts continuously, modifications are made to get a better estimation of the static sensitivity. Both the direct fitting method and the small drift modification method are investigated through computer simulations, and are used successfully in experiments on a Hughes 7013H cooler.     

Study of the slow-fast preamplifier input parameter’s effects on output image for LYSO scintillator with PS-PMT based animal PET

We developed a small animal positron emission tomography with four detector heads, each one composed of 2 × 2 cm² of pixilated LYSO matrix of 10 × 10 crystals, 2 × 2 mm wide and 10 mm deep coupled to position sensitive photomultiplier (PS-PMT, Hamamatsu R8900U-00-C12). Anger-type logic discretized positioning circuit (DPC) multiplexed readout connected to PMT of each head. The fast-slow preamplifier is used in the fabricated animal PET. We showed that the input capacitance of the preamplifier (the capacitance in the output node of the resistive network) has a direct effect on output image. Image broadening, peak to valley ratio and the geometry distortion of crystal illustration are studied for different input capacitance of preamplifier. The input capacitance of 1 nF resulted in the best image by keeping all the parameters at the proper level with no geometry distortion at the edge of the image.     

An ultralow noise current amplifier based on superconducting quantum interference device for high sensitivity applications

An integrated ultrahigh sensitive current amplifier based on a niobium dc superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) has been developed. The sensor design is based on a multiturn signal coil coupled to a suitable SQUID magnetometer. The signal coil consists of 60 square niobium turns tightly coupled to a superconducting flux transformer of a SQUID magnetometer. The primary coil (pick-up coil) of the flux transformer has been suitably designed in order to accommodate the multiturn input coil. It has a side length of 10 mm and a width of 2.4 mm. In such a way we have obtained a signal current to magnetic flux transfer coefficient (current sensitivity) as low as 62 nA∕Φ(0). The sensor has been characterized in liquid helium by using a direct coupling low noise readout electronic and a standard modulated electronic in flux locked loop configuration for the noise measurements. Beside the circuit complexity, the sensor has exhibited a smooth and free resonance voltage-flux characteristic guaranteeing a reliable and a stable working operation. Considering a SQUID magnetic flux noise of S(Φ)(1∕2) = 1.8 μΦ(0)∕Hz(1∕2) at T = 4.2 K, a current noise as low as 110 fA∕Hz(1∕2) is obtained. Such a value is about a factor two less than the noise of other SQUIDs of the same category. As an application, Nyquist noise measurements of integrated test resistors using the current sensing noise thermometer technique are reported. Due to its high performance such a sensor can be employed in all applications requiring an extremely current sensitivity like the readout of the gravitational wave detectors and the current sensing noise thermometry.     

基于有限元的激光熔覆凝固过程分析

针对激光熔覆过程中温度变化对其凝固组织的影响,讨论了温度梯度G与冷却速度(即降温阶段的温度变化率)对凝固组织的影响,利用形状控制因子K分析了激光熔覆过程的凝固行为。分析结果表明:在热源中心的正下方晶粒是沿基体垂直方向析出的;冷却速度有细化晶粒的作用,冷却速度越大,晶粒越细小;熔覆材料或基材达到熔点的时间与达到最大冷却速度时间的先后顺序对其凝固组织形态有重要影响,若冷却速度先达到最大值,其组织呈胞状晶粒,否则,其组织呈柱形树枝晶。K在80×106～120×106℃.s时,凝固组织为密布排列且粒径较大的胞状晶粒;当K大于200×106℃.s时,凝固组织为柱形树枝晶。