INVESTIGATING THE EFFECTS OF EDM PARAMETERS ON SURFACE INTEGRITY,MRR AND TWR IN MACHINING OF Ti–6Al–4V

Ti–6Al–4V is a kind of difficult-to-cut material with poor machinability by traditional machining methods, while electrical discharge machining (EDM) is suitable for machining titanium alloys. In this paper, three input machining parameters including pulse current, pulse on time and open circuit voltage were changed during EDM tests. To investigate the output characteristics; material removal rate (MRR), tool wear ratio (TWR) and different aspects of surface integrity for Ti–6Al–4V samples such as topography of machined surface, crack formation, white layer (recast layer) thickness and microhardness were considered as performance criteria. The variations of MRR and TWR versus input machining parameters were investigated by means of main and interaction effect plots and also verified by ANOVA results. The effect of pulse energy based on pulse on time and pulse current variations against recast layer thickness and microhardness was studied. The possibility of forming different chemical elements and compounds on the work surface after EDM process was investigated by EDS and XRD analyses. The experimental results revealed that general aspects of surface integrity for machined samples are mostly affected by pulse current and pulse on time. The approximate density of cracks, micro holes and pits on the work surface is intensively dependent on pulse energy variations. Although increase of pulse energy improves the material removal efficiency but leads to increase of average thickness and microhardness of recast layer.     

Surface characterization and material migration during surface modification of die steels with silicon, graphite and tungsten powder in EDM process

The present study reports the results of an experimental work carried out to evaluate the improvement in machined surface properties of die steels machined using powder mixed electric discharge machining (PMEDM) process. Two surface responses, surface finish and microhardness were analyzed for changes when machined with Si, W and graphite powders mixed in dielectric fluid. The machined surfaces were subsequently analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) to study the element migration from powder, dielectric and the tool. The powder mixed with dielectric and its concentration, current and pulse on time were identified as the significant factors affecting surface finish. Brass electrode and tungsten powder resulted in good surface finish. Amongst the dielectrics used, kerosene provided a better cooling effect whereas EDM oil resulted in better surface finish. The microhardness of the machined surface was also affected by powder and its concentration, current, pulse on time and electrode material. W-Cu electrode and W powder resulted in a higher microhardness. The SEM and EDS analysis showed significant migration of material from the suspended powder, electrode and dielectric to the machined surface.     

Complex phenomena study in dielectric fluid from gap during the W-EDM processing in ultrasonic field

Titanium alloys have been widely used in the aerospace industry due to its outstanding properties. However, the poor thermal conductivity and high chemical reactivity impair titanium alloys machinability in conventional machining, which make it to be one of the typical difficult-to-machine materials. Electrical discharge machining (EDM) becomes the best alternative to machine titanium alloys. This paper focuses on investigating surface integrity of low-speed wire electrical discharge machining (LS-WEDM) in machining Ti-6Al-4V (TC4) by multiple cuts namely one main cut (MC) followed by trim cuts (TC). The machining parameter levels of multiple cuts and offsets were modified aimed at TC4 material, and the surface roughness of 0.67 μm was obtained after one MC and three TC. In addition, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to observe the surface microstructure, which is characterized by an uneven fusing structure, spherical droplets, irregular droplets, craters, cracks, and micro-void; Moreover, it can be observed that cracks usually began with the edge of micro-voids, and the debris on the machined surface were deformed fragments due to the low thermal conductivity makes TC4 material be ejected or solidified before completely melting. Furthermore, the foreign elements of Cu and Zn were detected in the white layer by energy dispersive spectrograph (EDS) integrated in SEM; it also can be found that the crater edge has more Cu and Zn elements than crater center. The white layers were predominantly nonuniform and discontinuous due to poor penetration hardening of TC4 material. After the third TC, the white layer has become more continuous and the thickness was reduced to 2.7 μm, which was nearly invisible. The hardness of the white layer was almost the same as the base material. Finally, the blueviolet film was observed on the TC4 workpiece surface due to the electrolysis making the surface oxidation. By using X-ray diffraction (XRD), it is confirmed that TiO₂, Ti₂O₃, and TiO existed in the oxidation film. The technique and knowledge that this study proposed could provide a significant contribution to electrical discharge machining surface improvement.     

Surface characteristics of ECMed titanium work samples for biomedical applications

Electrochemical machining (ECM) process has great potential on account of the versatility of its applications. ECM is being widely used in the manufacturing industry because hard metals can be machined regardless of the mechanical property of a work piece. Titanium is broadly used in a number of fields such as aerospace, power generation, automotive, chemical including petrochemical, and sporting goods. Apart from these applications, it has tremendous prospective in dental, medical industries, and biomedical engineering. The biological performance of titanium implant depends on their surface topography and form accuracy that includes various surface parameters. ECM is one of the alternative machining processes that can be applied to the machining of titanium implant for biomedical applications. The aim of this paper is to present experimental result of surface characteristics obtained on titanium samples, utilizing developed cross-flow electrolyte supply system in electrochemical machining. It is observed that electrolyte flow velocity and voltage between electrodes are some of the influencing parameters, which affect the surface characteristics. Titanium oxide layer has been generated on the machined surface, which facilitates the improvement of the corrosion and chemical resistance of titanium implant. Effects of electrolyte flow velocity and voltage during electrochemical machining process for generation of various surface characteristics have been successfully studied through experimentation. In the present work, the obtained surface roughness values on the titanium sample machined by ECM were in the range of 2.4 to 2.93???m, which is within acceptable value for the implants. Effects of electrolyte flow velocity and voltage on the material removal rate and machining accuracy in the form of overcut are also presented in the paper.     

Application of TOPSIS to Taguchi method for multi-characteristic optimization of electrical discharge machining with titanium powder mixed into dielectric fluid

Mixing powder into dielectric fluid in electrical discharge machining (PMEDM) is a very interesting technological solution in current research. This method has the highest efficiency in simultaneously improving the productivity and quality of a machined surface. In this study, material removal rate (MRR), surface roughness (SR), and the micro-hardness of a machined surface (HV) in electrical discharge machining of die steels in dielectric fluid with mixed powder were optimized simultaneously using the Taguchi–TOPSIS method. The process parameters used in the study included workpiece materials (SKD61, SKD11, SKT4), electrode materials (copper, graphite), electrode polarity, pulse-on time, pulse-off time, current, and titanium powder concentration. Some interaction pairs among the process parameters were also used to evaluate the effect on the optimal results. The results showed that MRR and HV increased and SR decreased when Ti powder was mixed into the dielectric fluid in EDM. Factors such as powder concentration, electrode material, electrode polarity, and pulse-off time were found to be significant in the optimal indicator (C*) and the S/N ratio of C*. Powder concentration was also found to be the most significant factor; its contribution to C* was 50.90%, and S/N ratio of C* was 51.46%. The interactions of the powder concentration and certain process parameters for C* were found to be largest. The optimum quality characteristics were MRR?=?38.79 mm³/min, SR?=?2.71 μm, and HV?=?771 HV. The optimal parameters were verified by experiment, and its accuracy was good (max error ≈13.38%). The finished machined surface under optimum conditions was also analyzed. The machined surface quality under optimum conditions was good. In addition, the results of the study showed the TOPSIS limitations of TOPSIS in a multi-criteria optimization problem.     

Investigation of electro-discharge micro-machining of titanium super alloy

Being a difficult-to-cut material, titanium alloy suffers poor machinability for most cutting processes, especially the drilling of micro-holes using traditional machining methods. Although electrical discharge machining (EDM) is suitable for machining titanium alloys, selection of machining parameters for higher machining rate and accuracy is a challenging task in machining micro-holes. The present research attempts to optimize micro-EDM process parameters for machining Ti-6Al-4V super alloy. To verify the optimal micro-EDM process parameters settings, metal removal rate (MRR), tool-wear rate (TWR), over cut (OC) and taper were chosen as observed performance criteria. In addition, four independent parameters such as peak current, pulse-on time, flushing pressure, and duty ratio were adopted for evaluation by the Taguchi method. From the ANOVA and S/N ratio graph, the significant process parameters and the optimal combination level of machining parameters were obtained. It is seen that machining performances are affected mostly by the peak current and pulse-on time during micro-electro-discharge machining of titanium alloy. Mathematical models have been developed to establish the relationship between various significant process parameters and micro-EDM performance criteria. In-depth studies have also been made to examine the influence of various process parameters on the white layer and surface topography through SEM micrographs of machined micro-hole.     

Influence of dielectric and machining parameters on the process performance for electric discharge milling of SiC ceramic

Silicon carbide (SiC) ceramic has been widely used in modern industry because of its superior mechanical properties, wear, and corrosion resistance even at elevated temperature. However, the manufacture of SiC ceramic is not an efficient process by conventional machining methods. This paper employs a steel-toothed wheel as the tool electrode to machine SiC ceramic using electric discharge milling. The process is able to effectively machine a large surface area on SiC ceramic. To further improve the process performance, three kinds of emulsion are proposed as the dielectric in this paper. The effects of dielectric, tool polarity, pulse duration, pulse interval, peak voltage, and peak current on the process performance such as the material removal rate (MRR) and surface roughness (SR) have been investigated. Furthermore, the microstructure of the machined surface is examined with a scanning electron microscope (SEM), an energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD).     

An experimental study on micro-EDM in low-resistivity deionized water using short voltage pulses

Deionized water has been used as dielectric fluid for micro-electrical discharge machining (micro-EDM) because it gives higher material removal rate and lower tool wear than hydrocarbon oil. Moreover, it is a relatively low-cost and eco-friendly substance. Therefore, deionized water tends to be more favorable for micro-EDM. However, it causes weak electrochemical reaction during micro-EDM due to its slight conductivity. This leads to the unanticipated additional material removal from the workpiece which affects the machining shape and quality. The study in this paper aims to suppress the electrochemical reaction in die-sinking micro-EDM using deionized water by employing short voltage pulse. Experiments were carried out to fabricate micro-holes using the developed nanosecond pulse circuit. Different pulse parameters were applied to identify the main factor affecting the electrochemical reaction rate. Machining gap was found to be thinner and workpiece surface adjacent to the rim of micro-holes were found to be free of defects caused by material dissolution when pulse duration reached a critical value. Moreover, the influence of pulse parameters on material removal rate and machined shape was also investigated. Besides, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis showed that the machined surface using deionized water was less affected from material migration during micro-EDM process in comparison to hydrocarbon oil.     

Built-up edge effects on process outputs of titanium alloy micro milling

Built-up edge (BUE) is generally known to cause surface finish problems in the micro milling process. The loose particles from the BUE may be deposited on the machined surface, causing surface roughness to increase. On the other hand, a stable BUE formation may protect the tool from rapid tool wear, which hinders the productivity of the micro milling process. Despite its common presence in practice, the influence of BUE on the process outputs of micro milling has not been studied in detail. This paper investigates the relationship between BUE formation and process outputs in micro milling of titanium alloy Ti6Al4V using an experimental approach. Micro end mills used in this study are fabricated to have a single straight edge using wire electrical discharge machining. An initial experimental effort was conducted to study the relationship between micro cutting tool geometry, surface roughness, and micro milling process forces and hence conditions to form stable BUE on the tool tip have been identified. The influence of micro milling process conditions on BUE size, and their combined effect on forces, surface roughness, and burr formation is investigated. Long-term micro milling experiment was performed to observe the protective effect of BUE on tool life. The results show that tailored micro cutting tools having stable BUE can be designed to machine titanium alloys with long tool life with acceptable surface quality.     

Surface modification using semi-sintered electrodes on electrical discharge machining

This study investigates how machining characteristics and surface modifications affect low-carbon steel (S15C) during electrical discharge machining (EDM) processes with semi-sintered electrodes. Among the machining characteristics determined, the material removal rate (MRR), surface deposit rate (SDR), and electrode wear rate (EWR) are included. Additionally, exactly how semi-sintered electrodes affect the surface modifications is also evaluated by electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA), micro hardness, and corrosion resistance tests. The experimental results confirmed that the composition of the semi-sintered electrodes is transferred onto the machined surface efficiently and effectively during the EDM process, and that the process is feasible and can easily form a modified layer on the machined surface.     

铣削钛合金加工表面形貌特征参数的预测

钛合金在铣削过程中受迫振动明显,刀—工接触关系不断变化,加工表面形貌特征参数难以预测,已成为制约加工表面质量进一步提高的瓶颈。针对铣削振动与加工表面形貌的非线性随机变化特性进行了切削钛合金试验,采用高斯过程回归法构建铣削振动作用下的加工表面形貌高斯过程模型。分析刀齿误差和铣削振动对加工表面形貌特征参数的影响规律,为以加工表面质量分布一致性为前提的铣削钛合金工艺设计提供参考依据。     

基于圆台形热传导模型的慢走丝线切割仿真与试验

基于放电通道中等离子体的形成机理,根据慢走丝线切割在短脉冲放电加工时放电通道中电子流与离子流散射速度的差异,提出了圆台形热传导模型。采用基于圆台形热传导模型的有限单元法对航空材料Inconel 718的典型工况进行了仿真计算,系统地分析了放电能量对放电通道温度以及放电蚀坑深度的影响规律,并采用声发射检测技术在线监测慢走丝线切割的加工表面粗糙度。通过仿真结果与试验测得工件表面粗糙度Rt值的对比,再结合试验测得的声发射信号波形图特征及声发射信号均方根值发现：仿真计算得到的放电蚀坑深度与表面粗糙度Rt值吻合较好;声发射信号的强度随着放电能量的增加而增强,声发射信号强度随着放电温度变化速率的变小而减弱。最后回归分析得到材料表面粗糙度与声发射信号均方根值的数学预测模型,预测结果与测得的表面粗糙度误差仅为4.4%。     

Influence of open-circuit voltage on high-speed wire electrical discharge machining of insulating Zirconia

Insulating zirconia has attracted increasing attention in industrial applications due to its excellent hardness, chemical stability, and corrosion resistance. However, insulating zirconia is difficult to machine by using traditional cutting techniques. In this paper, the high-speed wire electrical discharge machining (HS-WEDM) process of insulating zirconia is carried out with the assisting electrode method. The machining characteristics of insulating zirconia with HS-WEDM process are investigated, which include the study of effect of open-circuit voltage (U) on machining speed, discharge gap, surface roughness, surface microtopography, and electrical discharge status. The experimental results indicate that when U is changed from 90 to 150 V, the machining speed increases from 1.02 to 2.61 mm²/min and the machining gap increases from 15.55 to 26.67 μm. With the increasing U, the percentage of electrical discharge with high resistance increases, the percentage of electrical discharge with low resistance changes only slightly, and the percentage of short circuit with low resistance decreases. Moreover, when grooves are machined into transverse and longitudinal direction of the workpiece, the two machined surfaces of one grove present different surface characteristics.     

Hard turning: Parametric optimization using genetic algorithm for rough/finish machining and study of surface morphology

The present study reports the effect of different process parameters on machining forces, surface roughness, dimensional deviation and material removal rate during hard turning of EN31, SAE8620 and EN9 tool steels. Feed rate followed by hardness, cutting speed and nose radius-depth of cut significantly affected machining forces whereas feed rate had the largest effect on surface roughness. The four responses were subsequently optimized for both rough and finish machining using genetic algorithm to determine the optimum combination of input parameters. Machined surfaces were subsequently analyzed using XRD followed by analysis of grain size and crystallite size of the machined samples and SEM analysis. Higher chromium content was observed at the machined surface as manganese dissolves in cementite and may replace iron atoms in the cementite lattice after machining. High heat is generated when machining at higher cutting speeds causing severe strain. The depth of the white layer decreases with increasing tool nose radius and increases at larger feeds because of greater heat generation. The SEM observations showed a smooth pattern with very low undulations with almost no crack damage.     

A new quantitative evaluation for characteristic of surface roughness in turning

With turning as the aim, a method for quantitatively evaluating the stability of cutting phenomena and a machining system from the machined surface profile (primary profile and roughness profile) is proposed, based on the hypothesis that when the ideal cutting is achieved, the form of the cutter should be perfectly copied on the machined surface and the process can be replicated. Therefore, if the form and the position of the cutter (normally known) are estimated, should be possible to quantitatively evaluate the stability of the cutting phenomena, including adhesion and built-up edge, based on the difference between the actual machined surface and the position of the cutter estimated. Moreover, due to the estimated positional accuracy of the adjoining cutting edges, it should be possible to evaluate the stability of the machining system based on the vibration and the accuracy of spindle rotation. In this study, a method for estimating a cutting edge during machining from a surface profile was developed. Furthermore, the proposed method was applied to evaluate three elements: a virtually ideal machining surface with good transferability, a machining surface with poor transferability, wherein feed marks are clear, and a surface with variable transferability and feed marks due to chatter or adhesion. The results indicated that the proposed method can be successfully used to extract these characteristics.     

AlTiN涂层刀具精铣TC4钛合金工艺参数的影响与优化

采用AlTiN涂层4刃φ10 mm硬质合金立铣刀,在VMC850立式加工中心上对TC4钛合金进行铣削精加工试验.利用高精密数字化检测设备,对加工成形的TC4钛合金试件表面粗糙度、平面度、平行度、表面形貌、残余应力及显微硬度测量.分析AlTiN涂层刀具在设定不同工艺参数条件下TC4钛合金的整体加工质量和表面形貌变化规律....     

Study of high-efficiency electrical discharge machining-induced ablation machining of titanium alloy TC4 using a multi-function electrode

Aimed at overcoming the low efficiency of electrical discharge machining (EDM), and taking advantage of the characteristic that most metals can burn in oxygen, a new high-efficiency process is put forward: EDM-induced ablation machining (EDM-IAM) using multi-function electrode technology. EDM-IAM injects oxygen and dielectric fluid into the processing area through a dedicated channel of a multi-function electrode. The chemical energy caused by the reaction of metal and oxygen can much improve the material removal efficiency. To study the factors affecting the efficiency of the process, the ablation machining of a titanium alloy (TC4) using a multi-function electrode was carried out; analysis of the worked surface was done with scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and discharge waveforms. The results show that the substances of the worked surface are mainly TiO, TiO_1.2, TiO₂, and smaller amounts of Ti₃O and other titanium oxides. Violent oxidation combustion reaction occurs during the ablation machining process. The processing efficiency of ablation machining can reach 347.7 mm³/min, which is 58.7 times that of normal EDM for the same processing conditions. The main reasons for the high material removal rate are the higher utilization rate of electric spark discharge energy, consumption of material by ablation, melting effect of combustion heat on the workpiece material, and forced chip removal effect by local explosion.     

Precision machining of high aspect-ratio rotational part with wire electro discharge machining

Precision and micro rotational parts are widely used in various industries, such as micro probes for medical instruments, contact pins for micro assembly applications, micro electrodes for micro Electrical discharge machining (μ-EDM) or micro Electro-chemical discharge machining (μ-ECDM). In this research, a uniform annular area layer by layer feeding strategy was proposed to fabricate high aspect ratio, small radii rotational components on a conventional Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) machine equipped with an auxiliary spindle. The uniform annular area layer by layer feeding strategy consisted of the roughing and finishing stages. First, the theoretical Material removal rate (MRR) and radial infeed rate for each layer were determined for the roughing stage, and the theoretical surface roughness, Rz in the finishing stage was researched. Then, a series of optimization experiments were conducted to investigate the influence of the parameters on MRR and the machined surface roughness. A group of pin electrodes were machined by applying this feed strategy with the optimized parameters, and the minimum diameter of the pin electrodes was 40 μm with an aspect-ratio of 60. Finally, micro electrodes for an injection nozzle were achieved with this novel process and a qualified injection nozzle for powder metallurgy was fabricated with the machined micro electrodes.

     

Investigating surface properties of OHNS die steel after electrical discharge machining with manganese powder mixed in the dielectric

Although electrical discharge machining is essentially a material removal process, efforts have been made in the recent past to use it as a surface treatment method. An additive powder in the dielectric medium affects the sparking action and helps in improving the surface properties. It may melt at the high temperature of the plasma channel and alloy with the machined surface under appropriate machining conditions. Breakdown of the hydrocarbon dielectric contributes carbon to the plasma channel. In this paper, changes in surface properties of oil-hardening non-shrinkable die steel after machining with manganese powder suspended in kerosene dielectric medium have been investigated. Results show improvement in microhardness by 73%, and no microcracks on the machined surface. X-ray diffraction analysis of the machined surfaces reveals the transfer of manganese and carbon from the plasma channel in the form of manganese carbide. Quantitative analysis of chemical composition by optical emission spectrometer confirms significant increase in the percentages of manganese and carbon.     

Analysis of the white layers formed during machining of hardened AISI 52100 steel under dry and cryogenic cooling conditions

The present work aims at understanding the effects of cryogenic coolant application and machined surface alterations during orthogonal machining of hardened AISI 52100 bearing steel. Experiments were performed under dry and cryogenic cooling conditions using cubic boron nitride tool inserts with varying initial hardness and tool shape. Several experimental techniques were used in order to analyze the machined surface. In particular, optical and scanning electron microscopes were used for characterizing the surface topography, whereas the microstructural phase composition analysis and chemical characterization have been performed by means of X-ray diffraction and energy-dispersive spectroscopy techniques. The experimental results prove that the white layer is partially reduced or can be totally eliminated under certain process parameters and cryogenic cooling condition.