Effects of legume processing on calcium,iron and zinc contents and dialysabilities

Legumes are a good source of calcium, iron and zinc, but are also a source of phytates and dietary fibre components that can negatively affect the bioavailability of these minerals. To estimate the latter, an in vitro dialysis method can be applied that gives the dialysability of a mineral as an estimate of its availability for absorption. Calcium, iron and zinc contents and dialysabilities in three legumes (beans, chickpeas and lentils) and the effects of cooking treatments and industrial processing on these parameters were studied. Beans had the highest calcium content (1.54 g kg^?1 dry matter (DM)) and chickpeas the lowest iron content (46.9 mg kg^?1 DM), whilst the zinc contents were similar in all three raw legumes (33.7–36.9 mg kg^?1 DM). Traditional and microwave cooking reduced the mineral contents by 9.7–36.4% for calcium, 14.2–31% for iron and 11.1–28.9% for zinc. The dialysabilities of calcium with respect to the values for the raw products were also reduced by these cooking techniques. Industrially processed legumes had higher dialysabilities of calcium, iron and zinc than traditionally or microwave cooked legumes. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

The inhibitory effect of albumin extracts from white beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) on in vitro iron and zinc dialysability: role of phytic acid

The role of phytic acid in determining iron and zinc dialysability in albumin extracts from raw, cooked and cooked/dephytinized white beans, has been investigated. Albumin extract from raw beans was characterized by high iron (19mg/100g), zinc (6.9mg/100g) and phytic acid (11.5μmol g⁻¹) contents and a low mineral dialysablity (Fe 0.48%, Zn 2.5%). Cooking did not influence the mineral dialysability from beans but significantly increased the dialysability of iron (1%, p < 0.001) and zinc (5.3%, p < 0.001) from the albumin extract. Slight modifications in the composition of inositol phosphates after cooking, both in beans and in albumin extract, were observed. The improvement in iron and zinc dialysability from cooked/dephytinized samples was strictly dependent on the residual IP(6 + 5) (inositol hexa + pentaphosphates) content. Compared to cooked beans, in cooked/dephytinized bean a reduction of IP(6 + 5) of 49% led to an increase of the iron and zinc dialysability (29% p < 0.05 and 42%, p < 0.001, respectively). Albumin extract from this sample showed a reduction of 58% in iron and of 45% in zinc content, an almost complete reduction in IP(6 + 5) content (0.6 μmol g⁻¹) and a strong increase in the iron and zinc dialysability. The albumin digests showed peptides of similar MW profiles but of different amino acid compositions. In particular, in peptides which derived from digestion of albumin extracted from cooked/dephytinized beans, a strong increase in cysteine content was found, indicating that, after the disruption of phytate-mineral-protein complexes cysteine-rich fragments were released. The study indicates that phytic acid is responsible for the low iron and zinc dialysability from the albumin bean fraction and indicates the significance of the amino acid composition of the protein digestion products for the enhancement of mineral dialysability.     

Effect of cooking on the composition of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)

The effect of cooking on levels of nutrients and anti-nutritional factors in beans and chickpeas was investigated. Significant (p < 0.05) variation existed among the beans and chickpeas with respect to their crude protein, starch, soluble dietary fiber (SDF), insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), total dietary fiber (TDF), resistant starch (RS), trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), mineral, phytic acid, tannin, sucrose and oligosaccharide (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) contents. Cooking beans and chickpeas in water significantly increased protein, starch, SDF, IDF, TDF, Mn and P contents (on a dry weight basis), whereas reduced ash, K, Mg, TIA, tannin, sucrose and oligosaccharide contents were observed. Colored beans (black, cranberry, dark red kidney, pinto and small red bean) contained tannins, whereas little tannin in white-colored beans (great northern and white pea bean) and chickpeas (Desi and Kabuli type) was detected.     

Iron and calcium availability from digestion of infant cereals by Caco-2 cells

An adequate mineral intake during infancy is needed for normal growth and development. This study investigated the effect of dephytinization of four infant cereals and the use of water and follow-on formula as the liquid of reconstitution on the intestinal cell uptake of iron and calcium from infant cereals using a model that combines a simulated gastrointestinal digestion adapted to the gastrointestinal conditions of infants younger than 6 months and the Caco-2 cell line. Iron and calcium uptake by Caco-2 cells from most infant cereals was significantly (p < 0.05) improved when a phytase was added. When infant cereals were reconstituted with water, dephytinization increased iron (3.2–19.5 vs. 3–10%) and calcium (0.66–2.3 vs. 0.35–0.59%) availability compared to the same infant cereals reconstituted with a follow-on formula. We can conclude that dephytinization of infant cereals and water addition improved iron and calcium availability, depending on the infant cereal used.     

Oligosaccharides in raw and processed legumes

 Oligosaccharides from several types of raw and processed legume seeds consumed in Spain, e.g. lentils (Lens culinaris L.), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.), red kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), white common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), “Judiones de la Granja” great white beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and faba beans (Vicia faba L.), were analysed by high performance liquid chromatography. The total sugar content ranged from 6.69% to 9.99%, and oligosaccharides represented 25–46% of the total sugar, in the various dry legumes. The main oligosaccharide in raw faba beans was verbascose (3.32%), and stachyose in the remaining legumes (2.21–3.23%). Different amounts of sucrose and traces of glucose, fructose and small amounts of inulin were present in raw samples of all the legumes. After soaking in tap water the loss of oligosaccharides was lowest in red beans (1.25%) and highest in common white beans (27.6%). Pressure cooking, without previous soaking, resulted in no oligosaccharide loss in common white beans but a loss of up to 32% in chickpeas. After pressure cooking of soaked legumes, the loss of stachyose ranged from 14.2% in red beans up to 35.9% for lentils. Substantial amounts of flatus-producing factors can be eliminated by common processing methods. Received: 12 May 1997 / Revised version: 17 July 1997     

Oligosaccharides in raw and processed legumes

 Oligosaccharides from several types of raw and processed legume seeds consumed in Spain, e.g. lentils (Lens culinaris L.), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.), red kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), white common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), “Judiones de la Granja” great white beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and faba beans (Vicia faba L.), were analysed by high performance liquid chromatography. The total sugar content ranged from 6.69% to 9.99%, and oligosaccharides represented 25–46% of the total sugar, in the various dry legumes. The main oligosaccharide in raw faba beans was verbascose (3.32%), and stachyose in the remaining legumes (2.21–3.23%). Different amounts of sucrose and traces of glucose, fructose and small amounts of inulin were present in raw samples of all the legumes. After soaking in tap water the loss of oligosaccharides was lowest in red beans (1.25%) and highest in common white beans (27.6%). Pressure cooking, without previous soaking, resulted in no oligosaccharide loss in common white beans but a loss of up to 32% in chickpeas. After pressure cooking of soaked legumes, the loss of stachyose ranged from 14.2% in red beans up to 35.9% for lentils. Substantial amounts of flatus-producing factors can be eliminated by common processing methods. Received: 12 May 1997 / Revised version: 17 July 1997     

Antioxidant activity of protein extracts from heat-treated or thermally processed chickpeas and white beans

In this study, antioxidant activities of water-soluble protein extracts from chickpeas and white beans were investigated. The area under the curve (AUC) values of lyophilized crude protein extracts (dialyzed or undialyzed) from thermally processed (121 °C for 20 min) or heat-treated (90 °C for 20 min) chickpeas (73–91 μmol trolox/g) and white beans (39–67 μmol trolox/g) indicated a higher free radical-scavenging capacity and thermostability for chickpea proteins than for white bean proteins. The thermal processing also increased the Fe⁺²-chelating capacity of lyophilized chickpea crude protein extracts 1.8-fold whereas it caused a 2.3-fold reduction in the Fe⁺²-chelating capacity of lyophilized white bean crude protein extracts. Dialysis increased the protein content of lyophilized chickpea extracts 1.5–2-fold but it did not affect the protein content of lyophilized white bean extracts significantly. Ammonium sulfate precipitation was not effective for selective precipitation of antioxidant proteins. However, it improved the free radical-scavenging capacity of lyophilized protein extracts from thermally processed chickpeas and white beans by almost 25% and 100%, respectively. DEAE-cellulose chromatography, indicated the presence of five (A₁–A₅) and three (B₁–B₃) antioxidant protein fractions in heat-treated and thermally processed chickpea protein extracts, respectively, and can be used for the partial purification of antioxidant proteins. The results of this study showed the good potential of chickpea proteins as thermostable natural food antioxidants.     

Nutritional evaluation and bioactive microconstituents (phytosterols,tocopherols, polyphenols,triterpenic acids) in cooked dry legumes usually consumed in the Mediterranean countries

In the present study we report the crude composition and several bioactive microconstituents content in cooked dry legumes, usually consumed in Mediterranean countries. The legumes studied were broad beans, chickpeas, two split peas varieties, two lentils varieties, pinto beans, black-eyed beans, five white beans varieties and white lupines.     

Saponin content of food plants and some prepared foods

Quantitative thin layer chromatography was used to estimate the saponin content of 20 common food plants and also of foods prepared from some of them. The food plants found to be richest in saponins were chickpeas (Cicer arietinum), soya beans (Glycine max), lucerne (alfalfa) sprouts (Medicago sativa) and varieties of Phaseolus vulgaris (navy beans, haricot beans, kidney beans). Saponins were not destroyed by processing or cooking. They were present in falafels (prepared from chickpeas), canned baked beans, canned broad beans and protein isolate from faba beans. However, the saponin content of a fermented soya bean product (tempe) was only half that of whole soya beans. Guar meal (Cyamopsis tetragonolobus) contains saponins but only a trace could be detected in samples of guar gum.     

Speciation of bioaccessible (heme,ferrous and ferric) iron from school menus

A spectrophotometric method using batho-phenantroline as reagent has been optimized for iron speciation [ionic Fe(II) and Fe(III)] in the mineral soluble (bioaccessible) fraction obtained from the in vitro digestion of food dishes. The effect of the precipitant and reducing reagents, and the amount of sodium nitrite added was studied. Heme-Fe was estimated by subtraction of ionic Fe from the total bioaccessible Fe (determined by atomic absorption spectrometry). The method was applied to 13 dishes included in school menus. Soluble Fe was mainly in ionic form (49–100%). With the exception of spinach and potato omelets, a significant linear correlation (r=0.92) was obtained between Fe(II) and bioaccessible Fe. The Fe(II)/Fe(III) ratio increased with increasing meat protein content in the dish. In the analyzed dishes, heme-Fe content depended on meat content and also on the processing procedure applied.     

Bioaccessible and dialysable polyphenols in selected apple varieties following in vitro digestion vs. their native patterns

To assess bioaccessible and dialysable apple polyphenols available for potential uptake by intestinal epithelial cells, an in vitro gastrointestinal (GI) digestion method was developed and main polyphenols investigated by UPLC. Polyphenolic profiles in the gastric medium were similar to those natively occurring in apples; however, bioaccessible polyphenols were at lower concentrations than those in the apples. The polyphenolic profile was altered during intestinal digestion, with a considerable decrease of total polyphenols. Flavan-3-ols were completely unstable in the intestinal medium, owing to their pH sensitivity. In addition, 41-77% of bioaccessible chlorogenic acid, the major abundant hydroxycinnamic acid in apples, was degraded during intestinal digestion, with partial isomerisation to cryptochlorogenic acid and neochlorogenic acid. All polyphenols found in the intestinal medium were dialysable, but were present at lower concentrations, suggesting that dialysable polyphenols can potentially be taken up by the enterocytes. These results highlight that GI digestion may substantially affect native apple-derived polyphenolic patterns and concentrations.     

The influence of germination on the nutritional value of wheat, mung beans and chickpeas

The changes in nutrients during the germination of wheat, mung beans and chickpeas were investigated. Germination was performed under conditions commonly used in the household. The amount of water taken up during 4 days of germination varied from 159 g/100 g (chickpeas) to 450 g/100 g (mung beans). For all three seeds losses of dry matter and carbohydrates were observed. In wheat and mung beans, phytic acid was partially hydrolyzed. In mung beans, the total fat content decreased. Increases in the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in wheat and of dietary fibre in wheat and mung beans were noted. At a constant level of crude protein, a measurable rise in limiting amino acids was observed in wheat and mung beans. Frequent watering during germination caused losses of Fe, between 9% and 21%, K (27% in chickpeas) and Cu (17% in chickpeas). Except for vitamin B6 in both legumes and vitamin B1 in chickpeas, accumulation of the vitamins under investigation (B1, B2, B6, C, E) was noted. Owing to these changes during germination, the nutritional value of the three seeds has been improved to various extents, most distinctly in wheat and least noticeably in chickpeas. Compared with other vegetables, sprouted seeds can be considered a valuable addition to the diet.     

Bioaccessibility of minerals in school meals: Comparison between dialysis and solubility methods

Determinations have been made of content and bioaccessibility of Ca, Fe, Zn and Cu in 13 dishes collected from a catering service delivering to a school. Bioaccessibility was estimated by measuring the soluble or dialyzable mineral fraction resulting from in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of the meal. The analyzed dishes had mineral contents (μg/g) in the following ranges: Ca (74.1–913), Fe (2.8–17.9), Zn (2.8–13.1), Cu (0.28–1.90). Mineral solubility and dialysis percentages were as follows: Ca (1.7–96.2; 0.75–61.3), Fe (16.0–97.8; 0.23–19.0), Zn (22.6–93; 5.78–31.45), Cu (35.7–92.3; 0.66–25.0). The highest bioaccessible Ca content corresponded to fish-based dishes, while vegetables were poor sources of Ca. The lowest Fe and Zn bioaccessible percentages corresponded to vegetable-based dishes, particularly spinach omelet, whereas dishes having meat as the main ingredient exhibited the highest bioaccessible percentages. In the case of Cu, vegetable-based dishes could be considered the best sources.     

Impact of household food processing strategies on antinutrient (phytate,tannin and polyphenol) contents of chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.): a review

Pulses, which include beans and chickpeas, are major constituents of the human diet. They are important sources of energy and nutrients, particularly protein, folate and minerals. However, they also contain antinutrients which bind minerals, mainly iron and zinc, rendering them less bioavailable or unavailable for absorption. The levels of these antinutrients may be reduced by food processing techniques such as soaking and germination. Researchers have used these techniques in a number of studies; however, there is no consensus regarding the optimum processing conditions for reduction in the levels of these antinutrients. Thus, this review was conducted to describe the results of studies on soaking and germination of chickpeas and beans. A systematic search was carried out utilising Food Science and Technology Abstracts (FSTA) (1969 to present), Web of Science (1899 to present) and Scopus (1823 to present). A total of thirty‐three articles were reviewed. Both soaking and germination resulted in significant but variable degrees of reduction in levels of antinutrients in most studies.     

In vitro bioaccessibility of iron and zinc in fortified fruit beverages

Iron and zinc bioaccessibility was estimated in the in vitro gastrointestinal digests of six different fortified fruit beverages (Fb) containing iron and/or zinc and/or skimmed milk (M). Solubility values can be used to establish trends in relative bioavailability of iron and zinc, as the first stage towards mineral bioavailability comprises solubility in the intestinal tract. FbFe, FbFeM and FbFeZnM samples showed iron bioaccessibility above 88%, differing ( P  < 0.05) from those of FbFeZn (53%). In turn, FbZn, FbFeZn and FbZnM samples presented higher zinc bioaccessibility (above 68%), differing ( P  < 0.05) from those of FbFeZnM (48%). The presence of milk-derived caseinophosphopeptides (CPPs) formed during gastrointestinal digestion in dairy samples does not increase iron or zinc bioaccessibility in FbFeM or FbZnM vs. FbFe or FbZn, but it is hypothesised that the negative interacting effect of zinc upon iron bioaccessibility when co-supplemented in these fruit beverages is overcome in the presence of CPPs, which favour iron solubility more than in the case of zinc.     

Effect of caseinophosphopeptides added to fruit beverages upon ferritin synthesis in Caco-2 cells

Ferritin synthesis was evaluated in iron sulphate solutions and in fruit beverages supplemented with iron, with/without zinc in the presence of caseinophosphopeptides (CPPs), based on a system combining simulated gastrointestinal digestion and the Caco-2 cell model. In iron sulphate solutions with/without zinc, the addition of CPPs had no effect upon ferritin synthesis. When CPPs were added to the bioaccessible fraction of fruit beverages supplemented with iron, ferritin synthesis increased in the same proportion as with the addition of milk. The addition of zinc to fruit beverages supplemented with iron and to iron sulphate solutions decreased ferritin synthesis. Nevertheless, in fruit beverages with milk, this decrease in ferritin synthesis was not observed when zinc was present.     

Antioxidant effect derived from bioaccessible fractions of fruit beverages against H2O2-induced oxidative stress in Caco-2 cells

This work evaluates the effect of bioaccessible fractions from fruit beverages against oxidative stress (OS) in Caco-2 cells. A fruit beverage (grape + orange + apricot) (with/without milk and/or iron/zinc) was subjected to in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, and bioaccessible fractions were incubated with Caco-2 cell cultures. Following preincubation, OS was induced with 5 mM H₂O₂. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial potential (Δψ_m), mitochondrial metabolism (MTT test), intracellular reduced glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase activity (SOD) were measured. The data evidenced viable cultures with increased mitochondrial metabolism and GSH-Rd activities, without alteration in SOD activity. Accordingly, more preserved mitochondrial integrity was also evidenced, allowing the action of antioxidant systems in preincubated cultures. Based on these data, we can conclude that a cytoprotective effect is derived from bioaccessible fractions of fruit beverages, though this effect failed to prevent intracellular ROS accumulation in Caco-2 cell cultures exposed to 5 mM H₂O₂.     

Effect of Gastric Digestion pH on Iron, Zinc, and Calcium Dialyzability from Preterm and Term Starting Infant Formulas

ABSTRACT: Iron, zinc, and calcium dialyzability from preterm and term starting infant formulas were determined after in vitro digestion, using special gastric conditions prevailing in preterm and newborn infants. Mineral dialyzability was studied using pH 2.0,3.5, and 4.5 for gastric digestion. The effect of gastric pH was more important on iron dialyzability (FeD) and zinc dialyzability (ZnD) than on calcium dialyzability (CaD). The effect on iron dialyzability was remarkable in fluid formulations with high digestibility: FeD was 18% to 20% when gastric digestion was made at pH 2, decreasing to 3% when made at pH 4.5. In most powder infant formulas with the lowest digestibility, FeD remained close to 10% despite variations in gastric digestion pH. Percent zinc dialyzability (ZnD%) steadily decreased when gastric digestion pH increased. At each pH, percent iron dialyzability (FeD%) and ZnD% from human milk were higher than those from infant formulas. Evaluation of mineral dialyzability from these infant formulas, using a gastric digestion pH prevailing in preterm and newborn infants, can provide valuable information on mineral availability.     

印度食用豆生产、消费及贸易概况

主要介绍了印度的食用豆生产、消费及进出口贸易情况.印度是世界最大的食用豆生产国,主要品种包括鹰嘴豆、芸豆、木豆和小扁豆,主要种植省份为中央邦、马哈拉施特拉邦、北方邦、拉贾斯坦邦以及安德拉邦.印度也是世界最大的食用豆消费国.印度主要进口食用豆,进口的主要品种是豌豆、绿豆、豇豆和菜豆;出口量相对较少,主要出口品种为鹰嘴豆.     

In vitro Extractability of Calcium, Iron, and Zinc in Finger Millet and Kidney Beans During Processing

ABSTRACT: Finger millet ( Eleusine coracana ) and kidney beans ( Phaseolus vulgaris ) were processed by soaking, germination, autoclaving, and fermentation for incorporation into a complementary food for children. Extract-ability of calcium, iron, and zinc were determined by in vitro HCl-Pepsin and Pepsin-Pancreatin methods after each processing step. Germination significantly increased the in vitro extractability of these minerals, while soaking, autoclaving and fermentation showed a smaller or insignificant effect. Iron extractability was low in germinated, autoclaved and fermented millet, as determined by the pepsin-pancreatin method, but increased 6.8 times with addition of vitamin C. Phytic acid was reduced by 85 and 66% in finger millet and kidney beans, respectively, during the overall processing. These results show that various processing methods, especially germination, increase mineral extractability. Addition of vitamin C and mango could be used to enhance mineral extractabilities, thereby helping to alleviate micronutrient deficiencies in populations subsisting on these foods.