Gender differences in social desirability and social approval bias in dietary self-report

Social desirability (the tendency to respond in such a way as to avoid criticism) and social approval (the tendency to seek praise) are two prominent response set biases evident in answers on structured questionnaires. These biases were tested by comparing nutrient intakes as estimated from a single 24-hour diet recall interview (24 HR) and a 7-day dietary recall (7DDR). Data were collected as part of the Worcester Area Trial for Counseling in Hyperlipidemia, a randomized, physician-delivered nutrition intervention trial for hypercholesterolemic patients conducted in Worcester, Massachusetts, from 1991 to 1995. Of the 1,278 total study subjects, 759 had complete data for analysis. Men overestimated their fat and energy intakes on the 7DDR as compared with the 24HR according to social approval: One unit increase in the social approval score was associated with an overestimate of 21.5 kcal/day in total energy intake and 1.2 g/day in total fat intake. Women, however, underestimated their dietary intakes on the 7DDR relative to the 24HR according to social desirability: One unit increase in the social desirability score was associated with an underestimate of 19.2 kcal/day in energy intake and 0.8 g/day in total fat. The results from the present study indicate that social desirability and social approval biases appear to vary by gender. Such biases may lead to misclassification of dietary exposure estimates resulting in a distortion in the perceived relation between health-related outcomes and exposure to specific foods or nutrients. Because these biases may vary according to the perceived demands of research subjects, it is important that they be assessed in a variety of potential research study populations.     

Development and testing of a seven-day dietary recall. Dietary Assessment Working Group of the Worcester Area Trial for Counseling in Hyperlipidemia (WATCH)

Using multiple 24-hr recalls (24HR) we tested the Seven Day Dietary Recall (7DDR) developed to assess nutrient exposures, especially lipids, in dietary interventions and other clinical trials requiring measurement of effect over moderate time periods. A total of 261 individuals in three studies completed a 7DDR at the end of a 3- to 5-week period during which 3 to 7 24HR were telephone-administered on randomly selected days. One of these studies and data from one additional study (total n = 678) allowed us to test the ability of the 7DDR to predict serum lipid changes in an intervention setting. In correlation and linear regression analyses, high levels of agreement between 7DDR and 24HR were obtained. For total energy: r = 0.67 and b = 0.69, and for total fat intake (g/day): r = 0.67 and b = 0.80. When 7 days of 24HR were available agreement tended to be higher. For total energy: r = 0.69 and b = 0.95, and for total fat (g/day): r = 0.71 and b = 1.04. Data derived from the 7DDR and fit to the Keys and Hegsted equations closely predicted actual changes in total serum cholesterol (within 15% and 10%, respectively). The 7DDR is a relatively easily administered, sensitive method to assess short-term changes in dietary fat consumption in individuals.     

Response biases as a confound to expressed burden among spousal caregivers of suspected dementia patients.

Burden among family caregivers has yet to be adequately assessed relative to social desirability response sets. This study examined the impact of two different response biases relative to expressed burden among spousal caregivers of suspected dementia patients. In addition to individual social desirability, it was hypothesized that a distinct social desirability construct exists as a function of one's perception of self within relationships. As predicted, a significant inverse association was apparent between expressed burden and this systemic response bias (as measured by the Edmonds Marital Conventionality Scale), whereas this association was not apparent with a measure of individual social desirability (the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale). This finding suggests that systemic social desirability may exist as a significant response bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Monitoring dietary change in a low-fat diet intervention study: advantages of using 24-hour dietary recalls vs food records

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the study was to evaluate two methods of dietary assessment for monitoring change in fat intake in a low-fat diet intervention study. DESIGN: The two dietary assessment methods were a 4-day food record (4DFR) and an unannounced 24-hour dietary recall conducted by telephone interview (referred to as a telephone recall [TR]). Subjects were assigned randomly to either a low-fat diet intervention group or a control group that received no counseling about fat intake. Dietary data were collected at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months. SUBJECTS: Two hundred ninety postmenopausal women with localized breast cancer were recruited at seven clinical centers in the United States. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Analysis of variance was used to test for significant differences in mean fat and energy intakes. RESULTS: Three sources of error were identified: (a) an instrument effect, suggesting underreporting at baseline of approximately 8% in mean energy intake and 11% in mean fat intake in the TR group compared with the 4DFR group (P = .0001); (b) a repeated measures effect observed for the 4DFR, suggesting underreporting of approximately 7% for energy intake and 14% for fat intake in the control group at 6 and 12 months compared with baseline values (P < .001); and (c) an adherence effect (or compliance bias), suggesting greater compliance to the low-fat intervention diet when subjects were keeping food records than when estimates were based on the unannounced TR. Compared with the TR, the 4DFR overestimated the extent of fat reduction in the low-fat diet intervention group by 41% (P = .08) and 25% (P = .62) at 6 and 12 months, respectively. APPLICATION: Multiple days of unannounced 24-hour recalls may be preferable to multiple-day food records for monitoring dietary change in diet intervention studies.     

Role of social desirability in personality testing for personnel selection: The red herring.

Response bias continues to be the most frequently cited criticism of personality testing for personnel selection. The authors meta-analyzed the social desirability literature, examining whether social desirability functions as a predictor for a variety of criteria, as a suppressor, or as a mediator. Social desirability scales were found not to predict school success, task performance, counterproductive behaviors, and job performance. Correlations with the Big Five personality dimensions, cognitive ability, and years of education are presented along with empirical evidence that (a) social desirability is not as pervasive a problem as has been anticipated by industrial-organizational psychologists, (b) social desirability is in fact related to real individual differences in emotional stability and conscientiousness, and (c) social desirability does not function as a predictor, as a practically useful suppressor, or as a mediator variable for the criterion of job performance. Removing the effects of social desirability from the Big Five dimensions of personality leaves the criterion-related validity of personality constructs for predicting job performance intact. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-care behaviors in insulin-dependent diabetes: evaluative tools and their associations with glycemic control

Clarified the relationships between self-care behaviors and illness-specific outcomes in approximately 270 youths with IDDM. Youths were assessed at three points in time using a semistructured interview measure and multiple indices of dietary intake and physical activity with two different methodologies (i.e., recalls, logs). Glycemic control was most strongly related to the semistructured Self-Care Adherence Interview (SCAI); and second to the overall quality of the youth's dietary intake. The SCAI also predicted glycemic control over time. Physical activity levels and specific nutritional components from the logs and recalls were generally unrelated to glycemic control.     

Food preferences predict eating behavior of very young Mohawk children

OBJECTIVE: To collect baseline data on energy and nutrient intake and nutrition knowledge, attitudes, and behavior of very young Mohawk children to assist the community in planning an appropriate, targeted nutrition and exercise intervention. DESIGN: Energy and nutrient intake data were collected from 24-hour recalls conducted in the children's homes. Nutrition knowledge, attitudes, and behavior were assessed using a 38-item questionnaire that asked children to report on what foods they like the best, eat most of the time, and think are healthful. The questionnaire was completed in an elementary school on the reservation. Before data collection, we hypothesized that the average diet of the Mohawk children would not meet national dietary recommendations. SUBJECTS: One hundred forty-three children, prekindergarten through third grade (aged 4 to 9 years), completed the 24-hour recalls and the questionnaire. An additional 136 children, also prekindergarten through third grade, completed the questionnaire (n = 279). STATISTICS: Analysis of variance with a Scheffe's multiple-comparison test was used to test for differences among grades and genders for energy and nutrient intake and questionnaire scores. Multiple regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between eating behavior and selected variables. RESULTS: A mean daily energy intake of 1,980 kcal consisted of 34% fat, 13% protein, and 52% carbohydrate with 13 g fiber and 235 mg cholesterol. Food preferences were the strongest predictor of behavior, they explained 71% of the variation in the behavior score. APPLICATIONS: The major finding of this study, that food preferences are the strongest predictor of reported eating behavior in very young Mohawk children, has implications for behavior change interventions. Focusing on changing what children like to eat, through repeated exposure to new foods in a positive social context, is more likely to change what foods they choose than is simple nutrition education.     

Comparison of food frequency questionnaires: the reduced Block and Willett questionnaires differ in ranking on nutrient intakes

Food frequency questionnaires, major tools in epidemiologic studies, are often criticized for biased and imprecise intake estimates. The aim of this study was to compare the performance of two widely used food frequency questionnaires, a reduced 60-item Block questionnaire and a 153-item Willett food frequency questionnaire, relative to three 24-hour recalls administered by telephone. The dietary data were collected in 1991 from a group of healthy women age 25-49 years (n=101) during the baseline period of a weight-loss intervention study in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Total energy and macro- and micronutrient intakes were compared across methods by using four analytic approaches: comparison of means and correlation coefficients, regression analysis, and estimation of percent agreement between each questionnaire and recalls. The Block instrument showed an overall underestimation bias, but was more successful in categorizing individuals on percent energy from fat and carbohydrate intakes than was the Willett instrument. The Willett instrument showed no overall underestimation bias and was more successful in classifying individuals on vitamin A and calcium intakes. Diverging performance characteristics of diet assessment methods have an implication for the design of studies, interpretation of results, and comparison of findings across studies.     

Effect of exercise and dietary restraint on energy intake of reduced-obese women

Self-selected food intake of 15 reduced-obese women living in a metabolic ward was studied for 14 consecutive days to determine the effect of exercise and other metabolic and behavioral variables on energy intake. A choice of prepared food items were offered at breakfast, lunch and dinner, and a variety of additional food items were available continuously 24 h/day. Subjects performed either moderate intensity aerobic exercise (A-EX) (n = 8) expending 354 +/- 76 kcal/session or low intensity resistance weight training (R-EX)(n =7) expending 96 +/- kcal/session, 5 days/week. Mean energy intakes (kcal/day, +/- SEM) of the exercise groups were similar: 1867 +/- 275 for A-EX, 1889 +/- 294 for R-EX. Mean energy intakes of individuals ranged from 49 to 157% of the predetermined level required for weight maintenance. Resting metabolic rate per kg 0.75 and the Eating Inventory hunger score contributed significantly to the between subject variance in energy intake, whereas exercise energy expenditure did not. Regardless of exercise, eight women consistently restricted their energy intake (undereaters), and seven other consumed excess energy (overeaters). Overeaters were distinguished by higher Eating Inventory disinhibition (P = 0.023) and hunger (p = 0.004) scores. The overeaters' diet had a higher fat content 34 +/- 1% (p = 0.007). Also, overeaters took a larger percentage of their daily energy, than that of undereaters, 27 +/- 1 energy intake in the evening, 13 +/- 2%, compared to undereaters, 7 +/- 1% (p = 0.005). We conclude that the Eating Inventory is useful for identifying reduced-obese women at risk of overeating, and these individuals may benefit from dietary counseling aimed at reducing fat intake and evening snacking.     

Effects of carbontetrachloride and chenodeoxycholic acid on hepatic monooxygenase system, lipid peroxidation and some immunologic parameters in rats

BACKGROUND: Nutritional characteristics of the mediterranean diet, with a high intake of complex carbohydrates, fibre, monounsatured fatty acids and vegetables, are related to a lower prevalence of some nutritional associated diseases. The aim of our study was to perform a longitudinal analysis of the evolution of food intake in a mediterranean population in order to observe its influence on the energy and nutritional intake and their balance. The latter could have some effects on health status. METHODS: Dietary intake was evaluated using the 24 hours recall method in a representative sample (n = 941, age range = 10-69) of a Reus population. This longitudinal study consisted of 70% of the samples studied in 1983 using identical methodology. RESULTS: During this decade (1983-1993), energy intake decreased significantly 180 kcal/day for men and 158 kcal/day for women, carbohydrates being the main cause for this drop (132 and 84 kcal/day less for men and women, respectively). Protein intake decreased significantly in both sexes, 5.6% for men and 8.0% for women. However, the evolution of fat intake was different for men (no changes) and for women (a significant decrease of 5.7%). Saturated and monounsatured fatty acids did not show significant changes in this decade. Cholesterol intake decreased significantly in both sexes. Energy percents obtained from lipids, saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids significantly increased. However, in absolute values very little changes in fat intake in both sexes were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The dietary pattern evolved to a lower energy intake with an increment of the percentage of dietary lipids, but this feature was did not reflect a greater fat intake in absolute values. Moreover, the main characteristics of the typical mediterranean diet (which is basically different to the usual diet of other non mediterranean european countries mainly due to its richness in monounsaturated fatty acids) did not change in the period analyzed.     

The role of multi-centre cohort studies in studying the relation between diet and cancer

In spite of important progress made during recent decades in nutritional epidemiology methods, many questions about the role of diet in determining cancer risk remain elusive. One example of an unresolved question is whether a high percentage of energy intake in the form of fat (especially saturated fat) is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer. Observations from international correlation and case-control studies support this hypothesis, while results from prospective cohort studies, generally considered less prone to bias, do not. In this paper, we review the advantages and limitations of these different types of epidemiological study design, and discuss how multi-centre studies may help answer some of the unresolved questions about relations between diet, nutritional status, and cancer risk. Multi-centre cohort studies may have the advantage of increased statistical power because of larger variations in individuals' dietary intake patterns and disease risk (as in international correlation studies), while at the same time offering all the possibilities of individual-level studies to model confounding and/or interaction effects.     

Comparison of 4 questionnaires for assessment of fruit and vegetable intake

OBJECTIVE: This study compared fruit and vegetable assessments derived from 4 self-administered questionnaires. METHODS: Among 102 adolescents, servings of fruits and vegetables assessed by 4 questionnaires were compared with estimates from 24-hour recalls. RESULTS: The prevalence of consuming 5 or more servings of fruits and vegetables a day was underestimated by the questionnaires. Questionnaires asking subjects to recall their diet over the previous year were more effective in ranking subjects (r's > or = .42) than those assessing previous-day diet (r's > or = .30). CONCLUSIONS: Brief assessments of fruit and vegetable intake are more useful for ranking subjects than for estimating prevalence of consumption of 5 or more servings per day.     

Effect of dietary protein restriction on nutritional status in the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study

The safety of dietary protein and phosphorous restriction was evaluated in the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) Study. In Study A, 585 patients with a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of 25 to 55 ml/min/1.73 m2 were randomly assigned to a usual-protein diet (1.3 g/kg/day) or a low-protein diet (0.58 g/kg/day). In Study B, 255 patients with a GFR of 13 to 24 ml/min/1.73 m2 were randomly assigned to the low-protein diet or a very-low-protein diet (0.28 g/kg/day), supplemented with a ketoacid-amino acid mixture (0.28 g/kg/day). The low-protein and very-low-protein diets were also low in phosphorus. Mean duration of follow-up was 2.2 years in both studies. Protein and energy intakes were lower in the low-protein and very-low-protein diet groups than in the usual-protein group. Two patients in Study B reached a "stop point" for malnutrition. There was no difference between randomized groups in the rates of death, first hospitalizations, or other "stop points" in either study. Mean values for various indices of nutritional status remained within the normal range during follow-up in each diet group. However, there were small but significant changes from baseline in some nutritional indices, and differences between the randomized groups in some of these changes. In the low-protein and very-low-protein diet groups, serum albumin rose, while serum transferrin, body wt, percent body fat, arm muscle area and urine creatinine excretion declined. Combining patients in both diet groups in each study, a lower achieved protein intake (from food and supplement) was not correlated with a higher rate of death, hospitalization or stop points, or with a progressive decline in any of the indices of nutritional status after controlling for baseline nutritional status and follow-up energy intake. These analyses suggest that the low-protein and very-low-protein diets used in the MDRD Study are safe for periods of two to three years. Nonetheless, both protein and energy intake declined and there were small but significant declines in various indices of nutritional status. These declines are of concern because of the adverse effect of protein calorie malnutrition in patients with end-stage renal disease. Physicians who prescribe low-protein diets must carefully monitor patients' protein and energy intake and nutritional status.     

Diet quality and dietary diversity in France: implications for the French paradox

OBJECTIVES: Assessing the quality of the total diet is a relatively new focus of studies in nutritional epidemiology. New indexes of healthful eating patterns have been largely limited to US populations. This study used evaluative criteria developed in the United States to assess diet quality and dietary diversity of French adults. METHODS: Habitual dietary intakes of a representative sample of 837 adults (361 men and 476 women) in the Val-de-Marne Dèpartement were evaluated. Evaluative measures of diet quality included a modified diet quality index (DQI), a dietary diversity (DD) score, and a dietary variety score (DVS). The 5-point DQI assessed compliance with the key guidelines of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) for healthy people. The DD score counted the number of major food groups consumed whereas the DVS counted the total number of foods consumed on a regular basis. RESULTS: Few French adults consumed diets consistent with the USDA dietary recommendations. Only 14% of respondents derived less than 30% of energy from fat and only 4% derived less than 10% of energy from saturated fat. As a result, 63% of the sample had DQI scores of either 0 or I. In contrast, close to 90% of respondents scored a maximum of 5 in DD. Persons whose diets met US dietary recommendations also had the lowest DVSs. CONCLUSIONS: Methodologic factors and cultural biases may account for some of the observed differences between French and US data. Nevertheless, studies of diet quality and diversity are a promising new approach to the study of the total diet and associated health outcomes and may provide new insight into the French paradox.     

Determinants of fibrinogen in an Italian population suffering from claudication. Lower fibrinogen in the south compared to middle and north of Italy. The ADEP Group

In Switzerland the longitudinal SENECA study (Survey in Europe on Nutrition and the Elderly, a Concerted Action of the 3rd European Framework Programme) was implemented in the city of Yverdon-les-Bains. The study investigated the nutritional and health status of 70 to 75-year old elderly living at home, in relation with their food habits, life style, social network and physical activity with a follow-up study 4 years later. Results of the follow-up study, with the subjects aged 74 to 79 years, and changes observed over the 4 years are presented here. The participants reported a rather good self-assessed health and were quite independent in their daily activities. Food and nutrient intakes decreased over the 4-year follow-up, as did physical activity, independence in daily activities and height. However, biological markers (haemoglobin, haematocrit, albumin, lipids and vitamins) of nutritional status showed little change and remained mostly in the normal range. Low energy intake was measured in 21% of the men (< 1500 kcal/d) and in 24% of the women (< 1200 kcal). This is a source of concern since such low energy intakes make it difficult to cover micronutrient requirements. It is therefore important to find ways to maintain or increase the quality of the diet and adequate nutrient intakes.     

Cyclamate consumption in Catalonia, Spain (1992): relationship with the body mass index

The dietary intake of cyclamate was evaluated in the north-east of Spain in 1992. In a random sample of the Catalan population consisting of 2450 people aged 6-75 years, two 24-h recalls at different seasons were collected; the amount and type of all foods, drinks and drugs consumed were obtained and the total daily intake of cyclamate was expressed in mg/kg body weight (bw), as the average of both 24-h recalls. Eighteen percent of the population consumed cyclamate, and the highest percentage was in men aged 35-44 years (33%). Average daily intake of cyclamate was 0.44 mg/kg bw in the whole population and 2.44 mg/kg bw among consumers. Subjects following a diet reported highest intakes, especially diabetics, and only 0.16% of the sample studied had levels above the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI). Among consumers, the intake of cyclamate was negatively correlated with Body Mass Index (BMI). The results show the pattern of cyclamate intake in the Spanish population.     

Changes in dietary fat intake preceding the diagnosis of cancer

We studied changes in dietary fat intake preceding the diagnosis of cancer in 96 men diagnosed with cancer during the Coronary Primary Prevention Trial and Post-trial Follow-up. Diet was assessed semiannually by 24-hour recall for the duration of the trial. Dietary fat intake was elevated in the interval 12-24 months before diagnosis compared with the interval 24-36 months before diagnosis [6.9 gm per day; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.04-13.7]. The percentage of calories as fat was also elevated (1.9%; 95% CI = 0.34-3.4). Fat consumption decreased in the 0- to 12-month prediagnostic interval. The basis for the elevation is unclear, but it may have been due to the metabolic effects of cancer before its diagnosis. Case-control studies of long-term diet may overestimate positive associations between dietary fat and cancer risk if the cases' recall includes the prediagnostic period, during which fat intake is elevated. In analyses of prospective studies of dietary fat and cancer, data from within the first 2-3 years of baseline should be examined separately to evaluate the potential for bias introduced by the inclusion of measurements representing transient elevations in dietary fat intake.     

Method variance as an artifact in self-reported affect and perceptions at work: Myth or significant problem?

Method variance is an artifact of measurement that biases results when relations are explored among constructs measured by the same method. The existence of method variance was explored for affective and perceptual constructs frequently used in organizational research. Data from multitrait–multimethod analyses, studies of social desirability and acquiescence, and relation of self-report and records of absenteeism were presented. Little evidence for method variance as a biasing problem was found with these measures. I conclude that properly developed instruments of the type studied here are resistant to the method variance problem, but that validity of these instruments cannot be assumed on the basis of these results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Metabolic responses to dietary supplements of bran

During a metabolic ward study, the addition of dietary fiber in the form of wheat bran biscuits to the diet of five volunteer subjects resulted in an increase in the stool wet weight and fecal solids. The excretion of fecal solids was highly correlated with the intake of unavailable carbohydrates, and fecal losses of water were similarly correlated with fecal excretion of these constituents. The major component of the increase in fecal solids was due to the noncellulosic polysaccharide fraction of dietary fiber. There was an increased fecal excretion of nitrogen fat and energy by most subjects when the supplement was eaten. However, the increased loss of energy in the feces was only 40-80 kcal/day, and therefore a large supplemental intake of dietary fiber had only minor effects on energy metabolism. Supplemental fiber is thus unlikely to induce a useful loss of calories in the management of obesity. The addition of dietary fiber caused an increased excretion of most inorganic constituents, particularly sodium and phosphorus; increased excretion of iron and magnesium was also found in two subjects.     

Social desirability in children: An extension and replication.

Administered a children's social desirability scale (CSD) to 1008 children 7-14 yr. old. Ss' camp counselors also rated each S on friendliness, leadership, social awareness, and seeking adult and peer approval. Results supported the V.C. Crandall, V. G. Crandall, and K. Katkovsky (see 39:3) finding with respect to age and sex. Age 11 was noted to be critical because the CSD score appears to stabilize at that age which suggests that adult approval motivations correlate in Ss as young as 11. Contrary to predictions CSD was not related to the counselor's perception of Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)