Effect of oxygen reduction during malaxation on the quality of extra virgin olive oil (Cv. Carboncella) extracted through “two-phase” and “three-phase” centrifugal decanters

Quality and composition of virgin olive oil (VOO) are strictly dependent on complex processes that take place during the olive fruit crushing and malaxation of the olive paste. In this work, modulation of O₂ levels within malaxation chambers (R1: unmodified atmosphere; R2: oxygen: 12.73–4.64 kPa from the beginning to the end of malaxation; R3: 10.46–2.27 kPa; R4: 9.87–0.69 kPa) in two continuous “two-phase” and “three-phase” oil extraction plants was performed. Combined effects on the biosynthesis of nutritionally bioactive molecules and aroma volatiles and on the resulting sensory properties of the produced oils were investigated. Results showed that the type of oil extraction plant markedly affected the level of the phenolic compounds in the oil (and the related sensory attributes of bitter, pungency, astringency and bitter and pungency persistence). Reduction of O₂ concentration in the malaxing chamber, while having a minor impact on the presence of phenolic compounds, significantly affected the formation of all the examined volatiles. Particularly, lowered levels of oxygen hindered the formation of lipoxygenase derived volatiles weakening odours and flavours of artichoke, fresh fruity, and fresh cut grass.     

Effects of olive paste fast preheating on the quality of extra virgin olive oil during storage

The olive paste obtained after crushing was fast preheated under different time/temperature conditions and then malaxed in an industrial oil mill (600 kg Frantoio/Leccino olive blend). Legal parameters (peroxides, free acidity and sensory panel), oil yield, total phenolic content, oxidative stability and phenolic profile were monitored during 12 months of storage of the virgin olive oil (VOO) kept in closed bottles in the dark. A fast preheating not longer than 72 s at 38 °C without malaxation lead to an extra VOO with a shelf-life of at least 12-months, similarly to the traditional EVOO obtained with malaxation. A fast preheating not longer than 72 s at 38 °C followed by 10 min malaxation lead to an EVOO with a ‘mild’ sensory profile and a shelf life of at least 12-months. Thus, the use of a specific designed fast preheater instead or before (a shortened) malaxation allows to obtain an EVOO with a low bitter/pungent attribute from olives which are rich of (sometimes unpleasant) phenolic compounds with the aim to meet the preference of targeted groups of consumers. Time and temperature of fast preheating are the critical parameters of the process.     

Influence of the malaxation time and olive ripening stage on oil quality and phenolic compounds of virgin olive oils

The main objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of the malaxation time (Mt) and ripening stage on oil quality and phenolic compounds of Hojiblanca and Picual virgin olive oils. In both varieties of oil, phenolic content and oxidative stability decreased as ripening progressed. The total level of tocopherols diminished by up to 40% as fruit ripened. The compositions of palmitic, stearic, lignoceric, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids were significantly influenced by the ripening process. The present work shows that an increased Mt promoted the increase of free acidity (up to 13.3%) and tocopherols (up to 11.6%) and negatively affected the oxidative stability and the concentration of phenols. Further research is required to determine ripening stages and malaxation conditions for all olive oil varieties to achieve a satisfactory balance between the improvement of both oil yield and oil quality and composition.     

Transfer of phenolic compounds during olive oil extraction in relation to ripening stage of the fruit

The transfer of phenolic compounds of Olea europaea L. cv. Arbequina variety during olive oil extraction in relation to ripening stage was investigated. The parameters of oil extraction by the Abencor system are shown together with mass balances of the products and by products from the olive oil extraction in relation to olive paste. The phenolic compounds in olive paste, pomace, oil and wastewater were identified and measured by HPLC. Throughout the study, the concentrations of simple phenols, secoiridoids and flavonoids were higher in the olive paste and pomace phases than in oil and wastewater phases. High concentrations of 4‐(acetoxyethyl)‐1,2‐dihydroxybenzene (3,4‐DHPEA‐AC) and secoiridoid derivatives such as the dialdehydic form of elenolic acid linked to 3,4‐DHPEA (hydroxytyrosol) or p‐HPEA (tyrosol) (3,4‐DHPEA–EDA, p‐HPEA–EDA, where EDA is elenolic acid dialdehyde) and an isomer of oleuropein aglycone (3,4‐DHPEA–EA, where EA is elenolic acid aldehyde) were found in olive oil, together with lignan compounds. It was observed that 3,4‐DHPEA–EDA was the most abundant polyphenol present in the wastewater phase. This indicates that biotransformation occurred during olive extraction, especially in the crushing and malaxation operations, and reflects the possible chemical changes that lead to the formation of new compounds. Moreover, the distribution of compounds showed their affinities toward different phases. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Microwave and megasonics combined technology for a continuous olive oil process with enhanced extractability

The malaxation step is a lengthy batch operation in the traditional olive oil extraction, consisting of kneading and shearing the olive paste. This study evaluated the ability of microwave heating to substitute the malaxation process without and with megasonic treatment of the paste. An industrial microwave and megasonic prototype was installed in a commercial olive oil plant. Four processing scenarios were evaluated. The average olive oil yield obtained by using microwaves, showed no significant difference with respect to the traditional malaxation. Yields showed increased extractability after exposing the microwave-treated and malaxed paste to a megasonic field by 1.98% and 2.25%, respectively. The oil content in the pomace verified the yield trends observed. Both microwave and megasonic treatments reduced the consistency of the paste. This study confirms the ability of microwave-treated to substitute the malaxation and for the first time demonstrates the ability of a subsequent megasonic intervention to increase yields.Industrial relevanceThe results of this paper demonstrated the ability of microwave treatment to substitute the traditional malaxation process and for the first time demonstrates the ability of a subsequent megasonic treatment to further aid the process towards increased yields.The study carried out in an oil extraction industrial plant confirms that it is possible to insert microwave and megasonic prototypes in an industrial line to overcome the batch nature of the malaxation process, thereby producing a continuous process. The combination of microwave and megasonic equipment into a modular unit could represent a new frontier for olive paste conditioning in olive oil extraction plants. This work revisits the layout of the extraction olive oil line to reduce the plant's complexity.     

Effect of growing location,malaxation duration and citric acid treatment on the quality of olive oil

BACKGROUND: The total phenolic compounds of olive oil exert antiradical activity at cellular level and can prevent cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome and cancer. Increased awareness of its health benefits has increased the consumption of olive oil around the world. An alternative processing technique effective in increasing the amount of oil extracted while maintaining the oil quality is needed to meet the rising global demand for olive oil. RESULTS: Addition of 0.3 g mL^?1 citric acid at 1:1000 (v/w) to olive paste followed by a 30 min malaxation period significantly increased the oil recovery, concentration of total phenolic compounds and antiradical activity by 46.23, 120.27 and 31.48% respectively. While there was no significant effect on the acidity, the peroxide value was significantly reduced by 63.85%. The organoleptic characteristics of the olive oil extracted with citric acid were also comparable to those of the control. CONCLUSION: Addition of 0.3 g mL^?1 citric acid (i.e. 30% w/v) at 1:1000 (v/w) to olive paste followed by a 30 min malaxation period in a Blixer^® 4.0 blender is the most promising extraction technique to improve the oil recovery, concentration of total phenolic compounds and antiradical activity of the extracted olive oil without compromising other quality parameters. © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effects of Olive Maturation and Stoning on Quality Indices and Antioxidant Content of Extra Virgin Oils (cv. Coratina) during Storage

ABSTRACT: Quality indices, antioxidant compounds, and antioxidant activities of extra-virgin oils from Coratina olives were evaluated during a 12-mo storage. Whole and stoned olives, picked at 2 different maturation index (MI), were submitted to malaxation for 45 min and extracted by a 3-phase continuous system. A 90-min malaxation trial was also performed for the stoned olives. The following parameters were monitored: free acidity, peroxide value, K₂₃₂ and K₂₇₀ indices, sensory profile, total phenolic content (TPC), phenolic profiles, tocopherol compounds, and antioxidant activity (AA). The highest TPC, AA, and sensory score were found for the oils obtained by olives picked at low MI and by stoned olives. After 12 mo, all the oils were still included into the “extra-virgin” category, and those deriving from whole olives picked at the lowest MI showed the best sensory characteristics due to high fruity and well-balanced pungent and bitter tastes. Practical Application: This study could represent a helpful tool for oil-makers to improve the marketing of extra-virgin olive oils produced from cultivars with very high phenolic contents, such as Coratina, generally not adequately appreciated by consumers because of their excessive bitterness and pungent taste. These oils, when extracted from whole olives, are generally consumed after a certain period of time (at least 6 mo) during which a decrease in the phenolic content occurs. The results of the present work demonstrate that oils extracted from olives picked at low maturation index can be marketed immediately after production if subjected to stoning and malaxed for a short time. This procedure allows to adjust the phenolic content and to obtain a high flavor and a well-balanced taste.     

Contribution of olive seed to the phenolic profile and related quality parameters of virgin olive oil

BACKGROUND: Conflicting results have been reported about the effect of fruit de‐stoning on the virgin olive oil (VOO) phenolic profile. The aim of the present study was to determine whether olive seed plays any role in the synthesis of this oil phenolic fraction. RESULTS: Increases of around 25% of total phenolic compounds were observed in oils obtained from de‐stoned olive fruits in three main Spanish cultivars. To investigate the involvement of olive seed in determining the phenolic profile of VOO, whole intact olive fruits were added with up to 400% olive stones. Excellent regression coefficients were found in general for the decrease of total phenolic compounds and, particularly, of o‐diphenolics in the resulting oils. On the other hand, it was found that olive seed contains a high level of peroxidase (POX) activity (72.4 U g^?1 FW), accounting for more than 98% of total POX activity in the whole fruit. This activity is able to modify VOO phenolics in vitro, similar to the effect of adding stones during VOO extraction. CONCLUSION: Olive seed plays an important role in determining VOO phenolic profile during the process to obtain an oil that seems to be associated with a high level of POX activity. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Modelling of virgin olive oil extraction using response surface methodology

Malaxation of the paste is the most important step for virgin olive oil extraction because it affects both oil yield and quality. In this work the influence of temperature and mixing time on oil yield, quality parameters and oil composition in photosynthetic pigments and total polyphenols is assessed by using Response Surface Methodology. Seven Picual‐variety olive samples from two consecutive seasons, with different maturity index, were used. Results show that temperature and malaxation time exert a positive influence in olive yield, with optimal values ranging from 20.1 to 32.2 °C and from 73.3 to 90 min. Oil quality decreased slightly as temperature and time of malaxation were increased. Top quality oils were obtained below 30 °C and shorter mixing time. The oil content in photosynthetic pigments increased with temperature and mixing time, while total polyphenols increased with temperature but decreased with mixing time.     

Radical Scavenging,Total Antioxidant Capacity,and Antiproliferative Activity of Phenolic Extracts from Extra Virgin Olive Oil by Cultivar ‘Frantoio’

The beneficial health effects of extra virgin olive oil are due to both its high content of monounsaturated fatty acids and its high content of phenolic compounds, which have recently attracted research interest. In this context, the aim of this work was to examine the in vitro antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of the phenolic extract obtained from extra virgin olive oil from O. europea cultivar ‘Frantoio’ (samples 1–4), one of the main varieties cultivated in Italy. The total phenolic content was determined by Folin–Ciocalteu method and instead the phenolic profile was obtained by HPLC coupled to a diode array detector and mass spectrometry. Extra virgin olive oil extracts exhibited high antioxidant activity through different mechanisms of action and these activities are related to the phenolic content. Sample 3 demonstrated the strongest free radical scavenging activity with IC₅₀ value of 56.5 μg/mL. The reducing ability measured with FRAP assay revealed that samples ranged from 91.3 to 156 μM Fe(II)/g. The same interesting trend was observed with Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity value. Moreover, the virgin olive oils showed a good oxidative stability ranging between 19 to 32 h. Antiproliferative activity evaluated by SRB assay revealed that phenolic extracts from the cultivar ‘Frantoio’ showed a strong antiproliferative activity against CORL-23 cell line with an IC₅₀ value of 14.5 and 55.9 μg/mL for samples 3 and 1, respectively, and these results are comparable to the positive control vinblastine. Overall, these results showed that extra virgin olive oils from the cultivar ‘Frantoio’, may represent an interesting source of phenolic compounds as functional components that could be consumed in diets and/or used for the elaboration of functional food and pharmaceutical industries.     

酶处理对初榨橄榄油品质及抗氧化活性的影响

将纤维素酶、果胶酶应用于橄榄油提取工艺,旨在生产具有较高总酚含量及较强抗氧化活性的高质量初榨橄榄油。随着果胶酶和纤维素酶添加量的提高,橄榄油的过氧化值及K₂₃₂均出现下降的趋势,油酸比例有一定程度提高,并在添加0.2%纤维素酶时油酸比例达到最高(65.85%)。结合主成分分析,确定了在油橄榄融合过程中添加0.5%纤维素酶得到的初榨橄榄油总酚含量和抗氧化活性最高。这是由于果胶酶和纤维素酶能有效降解橄榄细胞壁,减少亲水酚类物质与细胞壁多糖的络合,有助于橄榄果皮中的游离酚的释放,从而提高橄榄油中总酚含量及抗氧化活性。     

Influence of olive paste preparation conditions on virgin olive oil triterpenic compounds at laboratory-scale

The influence of olive paste preparation conditions on the triterpenic content of virgin olive oils from Arbequina and Picual cultivars was investigated. For this purpose, three sieve diameters of the hammer mill (4, 5, and 6 mm), two malaxation temperatures (20 and 30 °C), and two malaxation times (20 and 40 min) were tested. Results obtained showed that for Arbequina oils, a finer crushing level resulted in higher maslinic acid and erythrodiol content. Increasing malaxing temperature and time lead to a rise in both oleanolic and maslinic acid concentration, whereas erythrodiol content increased only for the longer malaxation time. For Picual oils, higher concentrations of oleanolic acid, maslinic acid, and uvaol were obtained by prolonging the paste malaxation time. A finer crushing level resulted also in an increase of maslinic acid content. These findings suggest that virgin olive oil triterpenic composition can be improved by regulating olive paste preparation conditions.     

The influence of the malaxation temperature on the activity of polyphenoloxidase and peroxidase and on the phenolic composition of virgin olive oil

The effect of the malaxation temperature under sealed conditions on the qualitative and quantitative composition of the phenolic compounds in virgin olive oils produced from four Italian cultivars was assessed for two atmospheric conditions. In both cases, the results show a positive relationship between temperature and the concentration of the derivatives of the secoiridoid aglycones; the effect of the temperature on the oxidoreductases that promote oxidation (polyphenoloxidase and peroxidase) was investigated to determine their optimal temperatures and thermal stability. While olive peroxidase (POD) showed the highest activity at 37 °C and high stability in the temperature range tested, polyphenoloxidase (PPO) exhibited the optimum activity at approximately 50 °C, but showed low stability at 40 °C, with a large variation in stability according to the olive cultivar. These results may contribute to an understanding of the increase in the phenol concentration found in virgin olive oils obtained following higher temperatures of malaxation.     

Changes in volatile compounds and oil quality with malaxation time of Tunisian cultivars of Olea europea

While there has been considerable work examining the effect of malaxation time on different characteristics of olive oils, there have been few that deal with all the major aspects. Here, the influence of malaxation time was evaluated using major local Tunisian (cv. Chemlali and Chetoui) cultivars. Standard characteristics were measured as well as detailed analyses of volatile compounds were conducted. Headspace solid‐phase microextraction (HS‐SPME) was applied to the analysis of volatile compounds of virgin olive oils from Chemlali and Chetoui varieties with differing malaxation time. Twenty‐seven compounds were characterised by GC‐FID and GC–MS. Compounds belonging mainly to alcohols, esters, aldehydes, ketones and hydrocarbons chemical classes characterized the volatile profile. Significant differences in the proportion of volatiles from oils of different malaxation time were detected. The results suggest that besides genetic factors, malaxation time influences volatile formation. The main variables that were affected by malaxation time were the total amount of phenols and composition of the volatile compounds. At malaxation time of 30 min, Chemlali and Chetoui olive oils presented the highest total phenol content (244.19 and 877.63 mg kg^?1, respectively), while the lowest content was observed at 60 min from regardless of cultivars. In turn, this influenced the oxidative stability and peroxide value. It was also clear that the cultivars behaved differently and this prevented general conclusions being made for all of the quality characteristics.     

Virgin olive oil phenolic profile and variability in progenies from olive crosses

BACKGROUND: The progressive transformation of olive growing and the increasing demands for high‐quality monovarietal virgin olive oil (VOO) have triggered interest in olive breeding programs, in which the evaluation of the new genotypes is the basis for obtaining new olive cultivars. In this work, the phenolic composition of VOOs from two progenies from crosses between ‘Arbequina’, ‘Arbosana’ and ‘Sikitita’ has been evaluated along two years. RESULTS: A higher degree of variation was observed in segregating population as compared to genitors. The results also showed that the variability within crosses constitutes the major contribution to total variance for all considered parameters (>92% of total sum of squares). All compounds under study were present in oils obtained in both years; however, clear differences in their concentrations were observed between years. CONCLUSION: Olive breeding can indeed provide genotypes that produce oils with improved phenolic profiles as compared to traditional cultivars. In addition, the data showed that selection as a function of tyrosol content could be achieved in only one crop year. Finally, p‐coumaric acid was the unique component able to discriminate between both crop years under study. Copyright © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

Has the use of talc an effect on yield and extra virgin olive oil quality?

The maximization of both extraction yield and extra virgin olive oil quality during olive processing are the main objectives of the olive oil industry. As regards extraction yield, it can be improved by both acting on time/temperature of malaxation and using physical coadjuvants. It is well known that, generally, increasing temperature of malaxation gives an increase in oil extraction yield due to a reduction in oily phase viscosity; however, high malaxation temperature can compromise the nutritional and health values of extra virgin olive oil, leading to undesirable effects such as accelerated oxidative process and loss of volatile compounds responsible for oil flavor and fragrance. The addition of physical coadjuvants in olive oil processing during the malaxation phase, not excluded by EC regulations owing to its exclusively physical action, is well known to promote the breakdown of oil/water emulsions and consequently make oil extraction easier, thus increasing the yield. Among physical coadjuvants, micronized natural talc is used for olive oil processing above all for Spanish and Italian olive cultivars. The quality of extra virgin olive oil depends on numerous variables such as olive cultivar, ripeness degree and quality, machines utilized for processing, oil storage conditions, etc. However, the coadjuvants utilized in olive processing can also influence virgin olive oil characteristics. The literature highlights an increase in oil yield by micronized natural talc addition during olive processing, whereas no clear trend was observed as regards the chemical, nutritional and sensory characteristics of extra virgin olive oil. Although an increase in oil stability was reported, no effect of talc was found on the evolution of virgin olive oil quality indices during storage. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry     

Oil content,phenolic profiling and antioxidant potential of Tunisian olive drupes

BACKGROUND: The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of the maturation process of the olive fruit on oil content, phenolic profile and antioxidant activity of four Tunisian cultivars (Zelmati, Chemchali, Chemlali and Chétoui). RESULTS: The average oil content of the studied varieties ranged between 17.50% and 20.25% at the first stage of maturation and from 30.20% to 35% in the last harvest. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of phenolic compounds were carried out using HPLC and LC‐MS/MS. Twenty‐six biophenolic compounds were identified. In all samples, hydroxytyrosol and oleuropein were the major compounds identified while rutin and luteolin 7‐O‐glucoside were the two main flavonoids. The total phenolic content varied from 3.46 to 4.30 g kg^?1 at the first stage of maturation and from 8.71 to 11.52 g kg^?1 of fruit fresh weight at the last maturation phase. Total flavonoid content reached 432.80 mg kg^?1. The antioxidant activity of the extract was evaluated by DPPH and ABTS assays. The IC₅₀ values of the olive extracts ranged from 2.69 to 10.96 µg L^?1 and from 2.15 to 3.03 mmol L^?1 trolox equivalent at the last stage of maturation. CONCLUSION: A relationship between the changes in phenolic content and the physicochemical changes in Tunisian olive fruit during maturation was established. These findings could be used for controlling the production processes and correlating the oil sensorial characteristics to the polyphenolic pattern. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Carbon dioxide emission from olive oil pastes during the transformation process: technological spin offs

The emission of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from olive paste during malaxation was investigated in a lab experiment using a hermetically sealed malaxation chamber. A rapid increase in the concentration of CO₂ during malaxation was observed, with an average increase of 32 ml/(l min) for the initial 5 min. Then, the emission progressively decreased to a mean rate of 1.1 ml/(l min). This was probably the result of an initial acceleration in respiration followed by the gradual onset of fermentation processes as ambient oxygen was depleted. After malaxation, small amounts of cellular fermentation products (e.g. ethanol and lactic acid) were detected in the wastewater. In order to examine this phenomenon of the inhibition of oxidation due to evolved CO₂, malaxation experiments were conducted in both a sealed and an open-air mixing apparatus. The differences in chlorophyll concentration of the resulting oils were then measured. Large amounts of chlorophyll, about twice as much, were found in the oil produced under sealed conditions. This increase in the concentration of chlorophyll resulted from the limited oxidation of the sample by atmospheric oxygen due to the protection of the evolved CO₂.     

Characterisation of phenolic extracts from olive pulp and olive pomace by electrospray mass spectrometry

Methanol extracts of olive pomace (two‐phase olive oil extraction) and olive pulp were analysed by reverse phase HPLC and the eluted fractions were characterised by electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry. This technique allowed the identification of some common phenolic compounds, namely, verbascoside, rutin, caffeoyl‐quinic acid, luteolin‐4‐glucoside and 11‐methyl‐oleoside. Hydroxytyrosol‐1′‐β‐glucoside, luteolin‐7‐rutinoside and oleoside were also detected. Moreover, this technique enabled the identification, for the first time in Olea europaea tissues, of two oleoside derivatives, 6′‐β‐glucopyranosyl‐oleoside and 6′‐β‐rhamnopyranosyl‐oleoside, and of 10‐hydroxy‐oleuropein. Also, an oleuropein glucoside that had previously been identified in olive leaves was now detected in olive fruit, both in olive pulp and olive pomace. With the exception of oleoside and oleuropein, the majority of phenolic compounds were found to occur in equivalent amounts in olive pulp and olive pomace. Oleoside was the main phenolic compound in olive pulp (31.6 mg g^?1) but was reduced to 3.6 mg g^?1 in olive pomace, and oleuropein (2.7 mg g^?1 in the pulp) almost disappeared (<0.1 mg g^?1 in the pomace). Both these phenolic compounds were degraded during the olive oil extraction process. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Use of capillary electrophoresis with UV detection to compare the phenolic profiles of extra‐virgin olive oils belonging to Spanish and Italian PDOs and their relation to sensorial properties

BACKGROUND: There is much interest in foods that belong to Protected Designations of Origin (PDO) because the quality and other essential and exclusive characteristics are guaranteed because of a particular geographical environment. We have used a capillary electrophoretic method for the simple, rapid and simultaneous characterization and quantification of the polyphenolic fraction of extra‐virgin olive oil from different PDOs (18 compounds in less than 7 min). To demonstrate the usefulness of this method, we have analyzed 16 samples of a Spanish PDO and nine other samples belonging to an Italian PDO (n = 5). RESULTS: In this way, it was possible to compare the phenolic profiles of the oils of different zones of the same PDO, as well as the phenolic profiles of Spanish and Italian extra‐virgin olive oils. Univariate statistics were used for differentiating the oils produced in each PDO. Furthermore, the correlations among several of the phenolic compounds present in the extracts of olive oil and its sensorial properties were checked. decarboxylated oleuropein aglycon (DOA) (b) (peak 6) was the compound more related to the bitterness of the oils, Ac Pin (peak number 4) and the unidentified peak with t_mig 4.025 min played an important role in the pungent taste of the oils, and these two latter compounds and the peak 13 seemed to be related to the fruitiness of the oils. CONCLUSIONS: The electrophoretic method described in the current work has the ability to detect and quantify simultaneously 18 phenolic compounds (belonging to five different families) in less than 7 min. This technique could improve the characterization of this polar fraction and determine the geographical origin of olive oils or detect possible ‘PDO markers’. In fact, capillary electrophoresis coupled to statistical analysis enabled discrimination among olive oils belonging to two different PDOs considering eight phenolic compounds present in the extracts, and also identification of the phenolic compounds which could have more influence on several sensory attributes such as bitterness, pungency and fruitiness. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry