Gender dysphoria, gender reorientation, and the clinical management of transsexualism.

Conducted 2 studies of gender dysphoria and postoperative adjustment by transsexuals. Study 1 examined the relation of gender reorientation (approximation of the status of the opposite biological sex) to psychological adjustment in gender dysphorics. Three S groups (75 heterosexual males, mean age 36.7 yrs; 85 homosexual males, mean age 29.8 yrs; and 103 biological females, mean age 27.4 yrs) were studied in multiple regression analyses, with psychological symptoms as criteria and measures of 3 roughly sequential components of gender reorientation (role changes, document changes, and physical changes), age, and education as predictors. Psychological complaints correlated negatively with the earliest phase of reorientation for females and with the later phases for males. Age and education bore little relation to current symptoms. Results suggest that psychological improvement accompanies gender reorientation in both male and female gender dysphorics; the greatest degree of improvement is seen earlier in the process for females. Ss in Study 2 were postoperative transsexuals (32 homosexual males, mean age 33.2 yrs; 9 heterosexual males, mean age 47.7 yrs; and 38 biological females, mean age 32.6 yrs) at least 1 yr after surgery. Follow-up rate was 77.5% for all Ss meeting the 1-yr criterion. Satisfaction with surgery was high, and psychosocial adjustment was acceptable for the majority. Results of both studies support the rationale for clinical intervention in aid of gender reorientation in selected cases. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unilateral lesions and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Revised: No sex differences.

Tested sex differences previously reported in WAIS—R scores (Verbal IQ vs Performance IQ discrepancies) in male patients with unilateral lesions by administering the WAIS—R to 31 Ss (16 males [mean age 42.6 yrs] and 15 females [mean age 38.4 yrs]) with right-hemisphere lesions and to 32 Ss (17 males [mean age 32 yrs] and 15 females [mean age 40.7 yrs]) with left hemisphere lesions. Results show that both males and females had expected discrepancies between Verbal IQ and Performance IQ. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Formal operations and the imaginary audience.

Replicated D. Elkind and R. Bowen's (see record 1979-25769-001) investigation of adolescent egocentrism and tested the relation between the imaginary audience and operational thought. 142 children and adolescents, ranging in age from 11 to 18 yrs, were administered a Piagetian-based written test of operational thought and the Imaginary Audience Scale (IAS). Several of Elkind and Bowen's results were replicated; however, the present study does not support the hypothesis that imaginary audience scores would be highest among Ss whose formal operational abilities were beginning to be established. Present findings indicate that concrete operations are necessary and sufficient to produce the increased subjectivity that characterizes the adolescent personality. The present authors discuss the nature of the measure of operational thought, the qualitative differences between the Transient and Abiding Self subscales of the IAS, and the relation between adolescent egocentrism and formal operations. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations between identity in young adulthood and intimacy at midlife.

A longitudinal study with 67 males and 75 females examined the relation between the development of ego identity by young adulthood and the establishment and maintenance of stable and enduring intimate interpersonal relationships by midlife. This relation was investigated further to discover how it might differ between men and women. As undergraduates, Ss completed measures of their demographic and psychometric characteristics, in addition to an identity scale, in 1963; in 1981, these Ss completed a follow-up questionnaire containing questions regarding their marital status (the measure of intimacy) and their personal, family, and professional life. The identity scale was initially cross-validated with other personality measures, such as the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), before being related to subsequent intimacy patterns. The achievement of ego identity was found to be important for the establishment (for men) and stability (for women) of marital relationships. Additional sex differences in happiness and spheres of life satisfaction were also found. These differences suggest differing developmental courses for young men and women as they establish themselves in the adult world. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Female gender as a determinant of cough threshold to inhaled capsaicin

Chronic, nonproductive cough and cough associated with the use of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, are more frequently observed in females as compared to males. To examine the influence of sex, age, height, weight and pulmonary function on airway cough sensitivity, cough threshold to inhaled capsaicin, an index of the airway cough sensitivity, was measured in 160 nonsmoking, nonatopic healthy subjects. Forty young males (aged 24 +/- 2 yrs) 40 young females (aged 22 +/- 2 yrs) 40 middle-aged males (aged 48 +/- 5 yrs) and 40 middle-aged females (aged 50 +/- 7 yrs) were studied. The cough threshold was defined as the lowest concentration of inhaled capsaicin causing five or more coughs. The cough threshold was 3-5 fold lower in females than in males both in young (p<0.001) and middle-aged (p<0.005) subjects. Cough threshold was weakly but significantly correlated to height, weight, forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) when all subjects were considered together but not when each group was considered separately. Multiple regression analysis revealed that sex difference was the significant predictive factor for the cough threshold in either age group. These results confirm that cough sensitivity is heightened in females and suggest that influence of height and pulmonary function on the cough threshold may have resulted from sex difference.     

Openness to experience and ego level in Loevinger's Sentence Completion Test: Dispositional contributions to developmental models of personality.

Sentence completion responses of a sample of 240 adult males, ages 35–80 yrs, were scored for the J. Loevinger et al (1970) ego development levels. Correlation of these scores with a series of objective personality trait measures collected over a 9-mo period showed no relation between ego level and measures of neuroticism or extraversion. However, as hypothesized, ego level was significantly related to 7 of 10 measures of openness to experience. Blind judgments of protocols from the upper and lower 20% of the Experience Inventory total distribution demonstrated that openness is expressed in sentence completion responses, and examples of characteristically open and closed responses are given. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moral judgment and the development of real and ideal androgynous self-image during adolescence and young adulthood.

116 Ss at 13, 17, and 20 yrs of age responded to the Defining Issues Test and to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI). The BSRI was divided into real self-image and ideal self-image formats. 17-yr-old and college-age males showed less preference on ideal image for masculine characteristics and more preference for feminine characteristics compared to 13-yr-old males. College-age females had a greater preference for masculine compared to feminine characteristics, whereas younger females had no preference for sex-typed characteristics. Ss at higher stages of moral judgment or with a higher percent of postconventional moral judgment were more likely to incorporate aspects of the opposite sex in their self-image. The findings are discussed in terms of both L. Kohlberg's (1966) cognitive developmental theory of sex role development and J. Loevinger's (1976) theory of ego development. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality, intelligence, and spatial visualization: Correlates of mental rotations test performance.

In the context of a longitudinal study of cognitive and personality development, I examined various correlates of spatial visualization ability, as measured by Vandenberg's Mental Rotations Test, in order to elaborate the meaning of the known sex difference on this factor. Spatial visualization ability in females was correlated with verbal IQ and various aspects of personality. These relations were absent in males. Within each sex, measures of cognitive abilities obtained in childhood predicted spatial visualization ability at age 18. Hypotheses designed to explain the sex difference in spatial visualization must be sensitive to the different implications of this factor in males and females. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ego development and individual differences in personality

The relation between individual differences in personality and differences in developmental maturity was studied by relating observations of personality by multiple, independent judges to level of ego development. The personality characteristics of longitudinally followed Ss (104 at age 14; 98 at age 23) were evaluated by the California Adult Q-Set (CAQ); ego level was evaluated by the Washington University Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development (SCT). A priori personality dimensions--consisting of CAQ items for which a common developmental pathway was expected--were constructed and related to the SCT: (a) Ego-resiliency and interpersonal integrity were associated with increasing ego development, (b) conformity was associated with the Conformist level and, unexpectedly, to the Conscientious level, (c) need regulation was associated with the Conscientious level, and (d) self-ease and expressiveness-playfulness were not associated with ego level.     

Comparison of external correlates of MMPI substance abuse scales across sex and race.

Examined the differential predictive accuracy of 7 MMPI Alcoholism scales and 2 Drug Abuse scales across both sex and race in a sample of alcoholic inpatients. Ss included 69 Black males (mean age 33.1 yrs), 43 White males (mean age 33.5 yrs), 25 Black females (mean age 38.1 yrs), and 34 White females (mean age 38 yrs). Results demonstrate considerable variance among the scales in their ability to predict alcohol and other drug use, expectancies, and consequences. Predictive accuracy within scales also varied across the 4 sex–race subgroups. (l9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

MMPI scores for field-dependent and field-independent psychiatric outpatients.

Investigated the relationship of field dependency to personality traits and styles of psychopathological adjustment. 3 shortcomings of previous research were avoided by using a larger sample (N = 414), a nonprojective measure of personality, and a clinical population. Validity scales, clinical scales, and 13 experimental Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) scales were compared for field-dependent and field-independent psychiatric outpatients. Separate analyses were made for males and females. As predicted, field-dependent males scored higher on social desirability and acquiescence but lower on social introversion. Field-dependent females scored higher on hysteria, repression, and hypochondriasis but lower on ego strength and control. Overall results partially support the proposed relationship of field dependency to personality traits and modes of psychopathological adjustment. The sex of the S is an important variable in predicting specific relationships. Correlational data indicate that the strength of the relationship between field dependency and MMPI scales should not be overestimated. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moderating effect of social support on the stress–burnout relationship.

Assessed the extent of life and work stresses, the availability of social support, and experience of burnout through a self-report questionnaire administered to 357 female (mean age 32 yrs) and 273 male (mean age 39 yrs) Israeli managers and human service professionals. Analysis showed that female Ss experienced more burnout and stress in life than did male Ss; no difference was found between the sexes for stress in work. Burnout was positively correlated with stress and negatively correlated with social support in both life and work. Further analysis revealed different patterns of moderating effects of social support on the relationship between stress and burnout for males and females: The relationship between work stress and burnout was moderated by support in life for females and by support in work for males. It is concluded that special attention should be paid to cultural, occupational, and sex differences in social support research and the exploration of its buffering effect. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Berkeley longitudinal studies: Continuities and correlates of behaviour.

Describes 3 longitudinal studies covering the age span from birth to 40 yrs or preadolescence to 50 yrs and including longitudinal data on parents, spouses, and offspring. Publications dealing with individual consistencies and discontinuities in intellectual, social, and personality development are reviewed, as well as factors influencing stability and change. Findings concerning developmental changes in trait organization and expression, sex differences in developmental timing, interactions between intellect and affect, and the impact of environmental influences are discussed. Continuity was most marked for language factors in intellectual development and directions and styles of personality described by the dimensions extroverted-introverted, warmth-hostility, placid-explosive, and expressive-inhibited. (French summary) (91 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adolescent egocentrism and cognitive functioning during late adolescence

The relationship between adolescent egocentrism and post-formal thinking was examined in 163 college undergraduates. Participants were administered the Imaginary Audience Scale and the Social Paradigm Belief Inventory. Results showed that females had higher levels of adolescent egocentrism than did males. A weak negative correlation between egocentrism and cognitive reasoning was found for females during late adolescence. The findings are consistent with Peterson and Roscoe's (1991) study of egocentrism in older adolescent females.     

The role of ego-control, ego-resiliency, and IQ in delay of gratification in adolescence.

The delay-of-gratification behavior of 104 14-yr-old Ss was assessed in an experiment in which each S chose between immediate monetary payment and larger, delayed payment on 5 occasions. Personality data were obtained on these adolescents in the form of California Adult Q-Set ratings made by several research examiners who were blind to the Ss' delay behavior. The number of delayed payments chosen was strongly correlated with these personality ratings, within both sexes. Ss who exhibited the most delay of gratification tended to be independently described as responsible, productive, ethically consistent, interested in intellectual matters, and overly controlled. They tended not to be described as unable to delay gratification, rebellious, unpredictable, self-indulgent, or hostile. Delay behavior in both sexes was also correlated positively with IQ and with Q-sort-derived indexes of ego resiliency and ego control. The relationship between ego control and delay behavior was particularly strong after both IQ and ego resiliency were partialled. These results were interpreted as reflecting the fundamental importance of both cognitive skillfulness and impulse control for adaptive delay behavior in situations that contain strong motivational inducements. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-sex differences in the expression of agonistic behavior in rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) groups.

Analyzed the distribution of agonistic responses (ARs) among age–sex (AS) classes of rhesus monkeys to test the hypothesis that AS differences in the use of ARs reduce the frequency of adult male involvement in those interactions involving biting and the more serious forms of prolonged contact. A group of between 84 and 91 monkeys in captivity was studied for 18 mo. Results show that submission was most frequent in juveniles (aged 1.5–3.5 yrs), but aggression increased steadily with age, albeit much more sharply in females. As infants (aged 0.5–2.5 yrs), males were more often involved in agonistic behavior than were females, but this sex difference reversed with age. A notable change in the frequency and forms of agonistic expression occurred in adolescent males (aged 3.5–5.5 yrs) such that, by adulthood, their participation in agonistic episodes was silent and brief and rarely involved biting. It is suggested that the high frequencies of ARs received by adolescent males account for the marked shift in adult male patterns of participation in intragroup agonistic interactions, as relative to females whose basic pattern of agonistic expression does not change with age. (58 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physical androgyny and cognitive functioning in adolescence.

Investigated the relationship of physical manifestations of sex hormone influence to cognitive functioning in a longitudinal sample of 106 male and 99 female adolescents. Cognitive and physical data were obtained on all Ss at ages 13, 16, and 18 yrs. Spatial abilities and verbal production measures were taken from the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scales and the Primary Mental Abilities Test. Physical measures were ratings of nude whole-body photographs. Results suggest that, in males, the relatively less masculine (androgynous) physical characteristics were positively related to spatial ability and negatively related to fluent production. Similarly, more masculine physical characteristics were positively related to fluent production and negatively related to spatial ability. Fluent production was unrelated to physical characteristics in females. The less feminine (androgynous) physical characteristics were related to spatial ability. Possibilities for the development of these relationships are discussed. (11/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early disruptive behavior, poor school achievement, delinquent behavior, and delinquent personality: Longitudinal analyses.

Three alternative models concerning the causal links between early disruptive behavior, poor school achievement, and delinquent behavior or antisocial personality were tested with linear structural equation modeling. Ss were boys and girls followed from 1st grade to age 14 yrs. Disruptive behavior was assessed in Grade 1; school achievement was assessed in Grades 1 and 4; delinquent behavior and antisocial personality were assessed at age 14 yrs. With regard to self-reported delinquent behavior at age 14 yrs, results indicate that the best model for boys was a direct causal link between Grade 1 disruptive behavior and delinquent behavior. Poor school achievement was not a necessary causal factor. For girls, none of the tested models were a good fit to the delinquent behavior data. As for delinquent personality, results indicate that, for boys and girls, poor school achievement was a necessary component of the causal path between Grade 1 disruptive behavior and age 14 delinquent personality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)