Double global optimum genetic algorithm–particle swarm optimization-based welding robot path planning

Spot-welding robots have a wide range of applications in manufacturing industries. There are usually many weld joints in a welding task, and a reasonable welding path to traverse these weld joints has a significant impact on welding efficiency. Traditional manual path planning techniques can handle a few weld joints effectively, but when the number of weld joints is large, it is difficult to obtain the optimal path. The traditional manual path planning method is also time consuming and inefficient, and cannot guarantee optimality. Double global optimum genetic algorithm–particle swarm optimization (GA-PSO) based on the GA and PSO algorithms is proposed to solve the welding robot path planning problem, where the shortest collision-free paths are used as the criteria to optimize the welding path. Besides algorithm effectiveness analysis and verification, the simulation results indicate that the algorithm has strong searching ability and practicality, and is suitable for welding robot path planning.     

Heuristics for single-pass welding task sequencing

Welding task sequencing is a prerequisite in the offline programming of robot arc welding. Single-pass welding task sequencing can be modelled as a modified travelling salesman problem. Owing to the difficulty of the resulting arc-routing problems, effective local search heuristics are developed. Computational speed becomes important because robot arc welding is often part of an automated process-planning procedure. Generating a reasonable solution in an acceptable time is necessary for effective automated process planning. Several different heuristics are proposed for solving the welding task-sequencing problem considering both productivity and the potential for welding distortion. Constructive heuristics based on the nearest neighbour concept and tabu search heuristics are developed and enhanced using improvement procedures. The effectiveness of the heuristics developed is tested and verified on actual welded structure problems and random problems.     

Sequencing algorithms for multiple arc-welding robots considering thermal distortion

This paper focuses on sequencing welding lines in multiple arc-welding robot systems, which is the problem of assigning individual welding operations to robots as well as determining their sequences with the objective of minimizing the maximum completion time. Each welding operation is denoted by a weld line with two end-points, each of which can be a possible starting point for the welding operation. Thermal distortion is explicitly considered by introducing a delay between welding operations associated with weld lines near each other. Due to the complexity of the problem, this paper suggests three types of search heuristics, genetic algorithms, simulated annealing and tabu search, each of which incorporates new methods to generate neighbourhood solutions. To show the performances of the heuristics, computational experiments are performed on a number of randomly generated test problems, and the results are reported. In particular, some of the search heuristics outperform the exiting method.     

Cluster-level operations planning for the out-of-position robotic arc-welding

Recent advances in computer vision and arc-welding technology have motivated a rethinking of several postulates and conventions incorporated in the existing robot off-line programming methods. This paper addresses relaxing of the downhand-position assumption, which became a de facto standard in robotic welding and requires the weldline to be horizontal and the weld normal vector to be opposite to gravity. In contrast to the standard techniques, the developed method explicitly assumes that a weld may be processed in the out-of-position location, which differs from the downhand location within given tolerances. However, to ensure the prescribed quality, the downhand deviation is charged by a reduction in the welding speed. For such settings, a novel method is proposed for the cluster-level welding operations planning for a robotic cell with a positioning table. The objective is to minimize the overall manufacturing time by finding a reasonable trade-off between the positioner motion times and the cluster processing times. It is shown that the associated optimization problem may be presented as a specific case of the generalized travelling salesman problem, for which an efficient heuristic algorithm has been developed that produces both the optimal welding cluster sequence and corresponding optimal motions of the positioner. The algorithm effectiveness was verified for a number of randomly generated test problems, for which the results are reported and analysed in detail. An industrial case study is also presented, confirming the validity of the developed technique.     

激光单目视觉焊缝起始点导引技术

针对弧焊机器人自动化焊接过程中初始焊接位置定位问题,本文提出了一种十字激光单目视觉的两步导引法.首先,找到成像平面上焊缝起始点坐标,以光轴中心为原点,光轴中心与该点的连线为z轴建立新的坐标系,通过求解新旧坐标系之间的旋转矩阵,控制机器人调整摄像机的姿态,使目标点位于摄像机光轴;然后,结合十字激光发生器,控制机器人沿摄像机z轴逐渐向焊缝起始点靠近,直至十字激光交叉点与焊缝起始点重合,即获得焊缝起始点的三维坐标,将该坐标反馈给机器人,控制焊枪运动至焊缝起始点.试验结果表明,该方法能够在保证焊接精确度的情况下实现对焊缝起始点导引.     

A genetic algorithm for sequencing type problems in engineering design

A genetic algorithm for engineering applications that involve sequencing of operations is proposed and demonstrated. Such applications are known as travelling salesman problems in operations research literature. The proposed algorithm uses some new operators that are different from those typically used in genetic algorithms. Some enhancements for improving performance of the algorithm are also described. Treatment of two salesmen in the problem is also discussed. Results for test problems, including a vehicle A-pillar subassembly welding sequence application, show performance of the proposed algorithm to be quite robust. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于遗传算法的码垛机器人路径规划应用

目的为了改进传统遗传算法在码垛机器人路径规划中可能出现的局部陷阱和过早收敛问题,以及机器人的能耗和路线平滑性问题,提出一种改进的遗传算法机器人路径规划方法。方法针对传统遗传算法存在的问题,分别对种群初始化、适应度函数、选择算子、交叉算子、变异算子的算法和方式进行调整和改进,对优秀算法进行融合。针对基本遗传算法主要着重于路径最短,从而忽视了机器人的能耗及路径平滑性等问题,设计一种综合考虑距离和转弯次数控制的适应度函数,最后将改进的算法应用于码垛机器人的路径规划中。结果仿真结果表明,相较于基本遗传算法,提出的算法搜索到的路径质量更高,不仅距离更短,同时转弯次数远远小于其他算法,路径更为平滑,验证了该算法的有效性。结论基于该算法的码垛机器人路径在兼顾距离最优的同时,路线更加平滑。由于减少了转向次数,机器人的能耗更低,同时仿真结果表明,该算法的实时性也较好。     

Optimization of GMA welding process using the dual response approach

Disturbances and changes in the welding working environment lead to possible variations in the output variables associated with weld quality. In order to enhance weld quality, it is essential to optimize the welding process by taking the variance as well as the average value of the output variables into consideration. In this study, the dual response approach is adopted to determine the welding process parameters, which produce the target value with minimal variance. The dual response approach optimizes the penetration in gas metal arc (GMA) welding through the procedures as follows. First, the regression models of the mean value and standard deviation of the penetration are induced through regression analysis. Subsequently, an optimization algorithm based on the regression models and constraints is applied to determine the welding process parameters, which generate the desired penetration with minimized variance. In particular, the genetic algorithm, a global optimization algorithm, is adopted in this study to determine the optimal solution.     

Prediction of solidification behaviour of weld pool through modelling of heat transfer and fluid flow during gas tungsten arc welding of commercial pure aluminium

Abstract

A mathematical model is developed to assess the solidification behaviour of the weld pools. To do so, during gas tungsten arc welding of commercial pure aluminium, equations of conversation of mass, energy and momentum are numerically solved considering three-dimensional steady state heat transfer and fluid flow conditions. The weld pool geometry, weld thermal cycles and various solidification parameters are calculated using temperature and velocity fields acquiring from the utilised model. The solidification behaviour of the weld pool at the weld centreline and the fusion line is then studied using the solidification parameters including temperature gradient G, solidification rate R and the combined forms G/R and GR. In order to verify the predictions, welding experiments are performed and geometry of the weld fusion zone is measured. The calculated geometry of the weld fusion zone is found to be in good agreement with the corresponding experimental result. The predictions show that the cooling rate GR increases toward the centreline while the other solidification parameter G/R shows a different behaviour. In addition, it is found that under the employed welding conditions, as the welding speed increases temperature gradients both at the weld centreline and at the fusion line are reduced.     

Effect of heat input and weld chemistry on mechanical and microstructural aspects of double side welded austenitic stainless steel 321 grade using tungsten inert gas arc welding process

Stainless steel 321 is a stabilized austenitic grade that prevents the formation of chromium carbides at the grain boundaries and subsequently reduces the risk of corrosion attack at the weld surface by forming titanium carbide. It is primarily used in industries such as pressure vessels, boilers, nuclear reactors, carburetors and car exhaust systems. In order to assess the effect of gas tungsten arc welding process parameters on weld penetration, the proposed Taguchi L₉ orthogonal matrix has been selected with two factors and three levels for welding austenitic stainless steel 321 by adjusting the welding current and welding speed. Bead-on-plate experiments were performed on base metal of 6 mm thick plate by changing the process parameters, and corresponding weld bead measurement and macrostructure images are examined. Maximum depth of penetration −3.3017 mm is achieved with a heat input −1.4058 kJ/mm, i. e., welding current-220 A and welding speed-120 mm/min. Double-side arc welding technique is used to obtain full penetration on 6 mm thick plate. The quality of the weldment was assessed using non-destructive radiography inspection. Mechanical integrity and microstructural characteristics of the weldments were studied using tensile (transverse and longitudinal), bend, impact, microhardness, optical microscopy, energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction analysis, ferrite number measurement and scanning electron microscope. The results reveal that the double side-tungsten inert gas weldment have better mechanical properties. It is corroborated from the weld metal microstructure that it contains γ-austenite, δ-ferrite and titanium carbides (intermetallic compounds). X-ray diffraction analysis and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy plots confirm the increase in the ferrite phase in weld metal. The ferrite measurement results show that the ferrite volume in the base metal and weld metal is 1.2 percent and 6.1 percent respectively. In addition, the higher δ-ferrite volume in the weldment helps in attaining superior mechanical integrity. Fractography shows that the failure mode of the weld metal and the base metal is ductile.     

Numerical simulation on interaction between TIG welding arc and weld pool

The interface deformation between welding arc and weld pool is important in dynamic coupling numerical simulation on arc and pool. To reveal the interaction between welding arc and weld pool, unified mathematic model of TIG welding arc and pool was established in this paper. The moving interface was solved by updating the calculation region of arc and weld pool continually. Fluid flow and heat transfer of TIG welding arc and weld pool were analyzed basing on this model. The weld pool shape calculated by dynamic coupling welding arc and pool is more close to the experiment than that of non coupling calculation.     

Control of submerged arc weld penetration by radiographic means

The application of real-time radiography for in-process weld quality evaluation is discussed. The advantages of this technique are on-line testing of weld penetration and the possibility of using this information for welding current control. The experimental system developed includes the arc welding unit, the welding manipulator, the real-time X-ray machine and the videorecording and computerized image processing units. In this system welding current can be remotely controlled during weld observation. The experimental results are demonstrated for the submerged arc welding process. In this process the welding pool is covered by a thick layer of welding flux and is therefore optically invisible. By using computer data on the grey levels of the weld images and their histogram distributions, the three-dimensional shape of the submerged arc pool can be recognized, image-digitized and analysed in real time at the rate of 30 frames per second. The depth of the welding pool which characterizes the weld penetration is a very important characteristic of the weld quality. This characteristic can be measured in real time and used for weld tracking and welding current control.     

Integrated task sequencing and path planning for robotic remote laser welding

This paper investigates the problem of integrated task sequencing and path planning in Remote Laser Welding (RLW). It is shown that finding the appropriate order of welding tasks is crucial for exploiting the efficiency of this new joining technology, and this can be achieved only if the robot path is considered already at the time of sequencing. For modelling the problem, a novel extension of the well-know Travelling Salesman Problem with neighbourhoods and durative visits, denoted as TSP-ND, is introduced. Basic properties of this problem are formally proven, and a GRASP meta-heuristic algorithm is proposed for solving it. Extensive computational experiments demonstrate that the novel approach solves efficiently industrially relevant problems, and it achieves substantial improvement in cycle time compared to the single earlier approach in the literature dedicated to RLW, as well as compared to a decomposition approach to solving the TSP-ND model.     

Integrated planning of loaded and empty container movements

Efficiently planning drayage operations is an important task for transportation companies since these operations constitute a large part of the cost of an intermodal transport. In this paper, a full truckload vehicle routing problem for transporting loaded and empty containers in drayage operations is studied. For empty container transports, either the origin or the destination is not predefined. The problem is formulated as an asymmetric multiple vehicle Travelling Salesman Problem with Time Windows (am-TSPTW). Two solution approaches are proposed: a sequential and an integrated approach. For both approaches, a single- and a two-phase deterministic annealing algorithm are presented. Results show that the proposed algorithms are able to find good quality solutions in a small amount of computation time. The integrated approach clearly outperforms the sequential one and the results confirm the advantage of using a two-phase algorithm for vehicle routing problems with hierarchical objectives. Finally, it is shown that the proposed integrated solution method improves previous results on a similar problem.     

铝合金不同板厚相交处自动焊焊接质量保证措施

本文通过对某艇甲板5083H116铝合金在自动熔化极脉冲氩弧焊接时,在不同板厚相接处出现的问题进行分析,并通过试验确定保证措施,确保了焊接质量。     

A comparative study of laser-arc double-sided welding and double-sided arc welding of 6 mm 5A06 aluminium alloy

In order to study the interactions between the two heat sources in both laser-arc double-sided welding (LADSW) and double-sided arc welding (DSAW), some welding characteristics including weld configuration, energy efficiency, weld microstructure and mechanical properties of the both processes were contrastively investigated. The results show that the weld cross-section of LADSW within the proper welding parameter takes on the combination of typical weld profiles of gas tungsten arc welding and laser welding, while the DSAW takes on a quasi-symmetrical shape. The energy efficiency of LADSW is higher than DSAW, probably due to the higher heat transfer efficiency in laser welding and stronger effect of laser on the arc. The weld microstructures of the both processes characterized by scanning electron microscope mainly consist of α and β phase, whereas the grain size and second-phase particle size vary a great deal for the different heat input. The tensile strength of LADSW is 91.7% of base metal, compared with that of 82.3% of DSAW, and the elongation is also higher than DSAW. The fracture micromorphology of LADSW indicates a more typical dimple fracture than that of DSAW. It is considered that the better mechanical properties of LADSW are attributed to the finer grain size.     

TC4合金等离子–MIG复合焊过程温度场的数值模拟

目的 研究TC4合金在等离子-MIG复合焊(Plasma–MIG Hybrid Welding)过程中的温度场特性,探究不同电弧功率对熔池形貌的影响。方法 进行了2组4 mm TC4合金板堆焊试验,根据实验结果提出了一种改进的复合热源模型并进行了相应的仿真分析。结果 仿真与实验获得的焊缝截面相吻合;等离子电流的增大使熔池尺寸增大且余高减小,等离子电弧功率的变化对熔池宽度的影响相对较小。结论 等离子–MIG复合电弧对工件的热作用非常集中,更易实现深熔焊、焊接效率更高;所提出的热源模型适用于TC4合金等离子–MIG复合焊温度场模拟。     

R‐curve behaviour of friction stir welds in aluminium‐lithium alloy 2195

ABSTRACT The fracture resistance of friction stir welds in 2195‐T8 is described in this paper. R‐curves were produced for several crack planes, parallel to the welding direction and situated at varying distances from the weld centreline. The friction stir weld was also characterized by hardness and tensile testing. Fracture resistance of the friction stir weld is compared to the base metal and to a variable polarity plasma arc weld. Results show that the material in and around the friction stir weld is tougher than the base metal and the variable polarity plasma arc weld. The friction stir weld fracture performance is discussed in the light of the observed hardness and fractographic data presented.     

AC TIG welding with single-component oxide activating flux for AZ31B magnesium alloys

Magnesium-based alloys are finding extensive applications foreground in aerospace and automotive applications. Weldability of magnesium alloys has recently been investigated with a variety of processes. In this article, the activating flux TIG (ATIG) welding of magnesium alloys with three single-component fluxes (TiO₂, Cr₂O₃ and SiO₂) under alternating current (AC) mode was studied. The effects of welding speed, weld current and electrode gap on the weld shape and the weld arc voltage in AC TIG welding with oxide fluxes were investigated on an AZ31B magnesium alloy substrate. The mechanisms of oxide fluxes on the arc shape and the arc voltage on the weld shape are discussed. The result showed that the TiO₂ and Cr₂O₃ increase the weld penetration of AC TIG welding of magnesium with good bead cosmetics. The SiO₂ increased the weld penetration with very poor formation of the weld surface. However, the arc voltage decreased with the used of TiO₂ flux, and increased with the used of Cr₂O₃ flux. The mechanism of TiO₂ and Cr₂O₃ fluxes increasing penetration should not accord with the “arc constriction”. It would comply with some potential effects of the flux interacting with the liquid metal of fusion zone.     

基于改进A*算法的仓储物流移动机器人 任务调度和路径优化研究

为解决仓储物流中移动机器人执行订单任务过程中,调度系统难以快速准确地进行任务分配,且搬运路线并非最短最优路线的问题,根据移动机器人的运动方式和订单任务要求,构建具有可重构性的仓库空间模型和栅格地图模型,通过建立数学模型求解订单任务最短完工时间分配问题,改进传统A^*算法中3种常用距离算法的不足,并提出复杂对角线距离算法进行路径规划仿真。仿真结果表明,上述方法实现总任务完工时间最短的任务分配,使路径规划搜索节点数减少30%,路径长度缩短20%。