Optimal distribution channel strategy for new and remanufactured products

The market for remanufactured products is large and growing rapidly, accelerated by the widespread popularity of internet sales and online auctions. Whereas extant remanufacturing research focuses primarily on such operations management issues in collecting of end-of-life products, remanufacturing technologies, production planning, and inventory control, we consider an operations-marketing interaction issue by identifying the optimal channel structures for marketing new and remanufactured products. Specifically, based on observations from current practice, we consider three channel strategies a dominant manufacturer can adopt: (1) marketing both new and remanufactured products through an independent retailer; (2) marketing the remanufactured products through the independent retailer, while controlling the new product sales by using its own online channel; (3) marketing the remanufactured products through the manufacturer-owned online channel, while selling new products through the independent retailer. Our results show that the manufacturer prefers to differentiate new and remanufactured products by opening a direct online channel, no matter how the system parameters change. However, which type of products (new or remanufactured) the manufacturer should sell through the online channel depends on the cost saving from remanufacturing, the customer’s acceptance of remanufactured products and the online inconvenience cost. Furthermore, this paper shows that, compared with channel strategy I where the manufacturer sells both new and remanufactured products through an independent retailer, this dual channel strategy benefits the end consumers, but might do harm to the retailer and the total supply chain in some situations.     

直销渠道选择对供应链成员决策的影响研究

在考虑直销渠道单位产品运作成本和消费者区域性差异特点的情况下,研究了处于主导地位的制造商开通直销渠道的条件,探讨了直销渠道对渠道需求、制造商和零售商的最优定价和利润的影响。结果表明,开通直销渠道不影响制造商的批发价定价,但可以迫使零售商降低零售价格;开通直销渠道使制造商在分散式供应链中和协调式供应链中都能获得更多利润,使零售商利润减少;只有当运作成本和消费者区域性差异都很大时,开通直销渠道对双方都是有利的,实现“双赢”局面。     

考虑服务的零售商渠道选择与定价策略

面对强势制造商控制网络直销渠道和批发价格，零售商在此不利局面下如何改善自身绩效，针对该问题，构建了零售商提高服务水平和开辟网络渠道的最优定价决策模型。在集中式和Stackelberg分散式两种供应链情形下，研究了零售商开辟和未开辟网络渠道下服务水平对定价策略和各成员利润的影响。研究表明，零售商提高服务水平有利于零售商和制造商以及整个供应链的绩效；开辟网络渠道会提升零售价格，增加零售商和制造商以及整个供应链的利润。     

不同担保模式下考虑零售商公平关切的闭环供应链博弈模型

针对由一个制造商和一个零售商构成的闭环供应链,运用Stackelberg动态博弈理论,构建不同担保模式下考虑零售商公平关切的决策博弈模型,探讨产品担保模式及零售商公平关切对闭环供应链定价及担保期决策、经济效益和环境效益的影响,分析不同担保模式的担保效率.研究结果表明:当消费者对新产品和再制造品差异化担保期较为敏感时,制造商或零售商会为再制造品提供长期担保服务;零售商公平关切会降低新产品和再制造品批发价格,其对再制造品销售价格、担保期以及供应链经济环境效益的影响与产品担保模式密切相关;两种担保模式的经济环境效益与担保成本和再制造品相对环境优势相关,当零售商担保的相对成本优势和再制造品相对环境优势显著(微弱)时,零售商(制造商)担保模式是闭环供应链利益相关者的一致选择;零售商担保模式能够减缓零售商公平关切对闭环供应链经济效益及环境效益的负面影响.     

The impact of consumer behavior on preannounced pricing for a dual‐channel supply chain

This study discusses a dual‐channel supply chain in which a manufacturer sells a regular‐priced product through dual channels in the normal sales period and only sells overstocked products through the direct channel in the discounted sales period in the presence of strategic consumers. The manufacturer acts as a Stackelberg leader to adopt a preannounced pricing policy. This study first proposes demand functions for a two‐period dual‐channel model by incorporating consumer utility functions. Based on the demand functions, optimal pricing strategies for both manufacturer and retailer are established. The results show that the manufacturer prefers to raise prices in both periods for consumers with a short delivery lead time. However, counterintuitively, the selling prices set by the manufacturer do not decrease as the degree of consumer patience increases. Finally, there is a Pareto zone under a certain condition where both the manufacturer and the retailer in the two‐period dual‐channel model outperform their counterparts in terms of profit in the single‐period dual‐channel model.     

竞争回收下制造商的回收定价与合作策略

针对传统人工回收和智能回收在回收方式上的差异,考虑消费者对智能回收渠道的选择偏好,分别构建单一传统回收、单一智能回收、双回收渠道下分散决策和集中决策模型,以及制造商分别与传统回收商和智能回收商合作的决策模型,分析了竞争回收下制造商的回收定价与回收合作策略.研究表明:相对于单一回收渠道,双回收渠道竞争会促使传统回收商和智能回收商提高回收价,但会降低回收商的利润;与单一回收渠道相比,双回收渠道下制造商、零售商和供应链的利润会增加,而制造商与回收商合作可进一步提高制造商、零售商和供应链的利润;以双回收渠道分散决策为参照,制造商与传统回收商和智能回收商之间均有合作动机,且制造商与传统回收商合作后的增量利润较大,制造商与智能回收商合作后的增量利润较小.     

基于零售商资金约束供应链采用RFID技术的决策及融资分析

为研究零售商存在资金约束和库存错放时,供应链成员采用无线射频识别(radio frequency identification,RFID)技术及融资决策的均衡问题,以单制造商和单资金约束零售商组成的两级供应链为研究对象,基于报童模型构建供应链成员采用RFID技术前后零售商是否融资4种情景下的收益模型,求解出相应的最优解并探讨供应链成员RFID采用决策与零售商的融资策略.研究发现:当零售商的自有资金适中时,供应链成员采用RFID技术一定程度上能够缓解零售商的资金约束;零售商选择融资时,供应链及其成员能够承担更高的RFID成本;零售商分摊RFID固定成本的比例对制造商、零售商和供应链能够承担的RFID标签成本阈值有决定性的影响.     

Optimal dual-channel supply chain configuration for product categories with different customer preference of online channel

This study addresses the supply chain configuration problem of manufacturer faced with multiple channel choices. We investigate the optimal combination of traditional and online sales channels for different product categories with differing customer preference of the online channel. We have considered three distinct dual-channel supply chain configurations comprising of a manufacturer, a traditional channel and an online channel viz. retailer–e-tailer; company store–e-tailer; and retailer–e-marketplace. As the manufacturer will face a quantity allocation decision between traditional and online channels, the competition is modeled using Cournot model with the manufacturer as the Stackelberg leader. Values of optimal order quantity and price for the different entities have been established. Influence of variation in customer preference of online channel on the optimal policies is also examined. We find that the manufacturer prefers retailer–e-marketplace configuration for products with high customer preference of online channel and company store–e-tailer configuration for products with low customer preference of online channel. In addition, we find that the retailer–e-tailer configuration is dominated by company store–e-tailer and retailer–e-marketplace configuration irrespective of the product’s customer preference of online channel.     

考虑双重低碳宣传补贴的供应链碳减排优化

考虑由一个制造商主导的一个零售商构成的供应链,研究供应链的合作减排及低碳宣传问题,运用斯坦伯格博弈理论分别构建了制造商给予零售商的单一低碳宣传补贴（SS）以及政府给予制造商、制造商给予零售商的双重低碳宣传补贴（DS）的分散决策博弈模型,得到最优的减排水平、低碳宣传努力程度以及低碳宣传成本分摊比例。通过比较分析发现：当政府补贴系数超过一定值时,DS模式下供应链利润、制造商利润、零售商利润、减排水平、低碳宣传努力程度及低碳宣传成本分摊比例均优于SS模式;政府补贴系数的增加、减排难度的降低及零售商的宣传努力成本系数降低会增加制造商、零售商以及供应链利润。最后运用算例验证了模型的有效性。     

Ordering,wholesale pricing and lead-time decisions in a three-stage supply chain under demand uncertainty

This paper develops a game theoretic model of a three-stage supply chain consisting of one retailer, one manufacturer and one subcontractor to study ordering, wholesale pricing and lead-time decisions, where the manufacturer produces a seasonal/perishable product. We explicitly model the effects of the lead-time and the length of selling season on both demand uncertainty and inventory-holding costs. We present the equilibrium outcome of the decentralized supply chain. When the lead-time increases, we find that the retailer increases the order quantity, the manufacturer offers a lower unit-wholesale price and the subcontractor decreases its unit-wholesale price if the manufacturer subcontracts part of the retailer’s order. In the endogenous lead-time setting, we illustrate the effects of some factors such as unit holding cost and capacity on the equilibrium outcome. We find that a higher unit holding cost implies a lower optimal lead-time and order quantity while higher unit-wholesale prices; the basic demand uncertainty increases the optimal lead-time and order quantity while decreases the unit-wholesale prices. The effects of distribution form on equilibrium outcome/profits are investigated by employing a numerical example. The profit loss of decentralization decreases (increases) with the basic demand uncertainty and manufacturer’s capacity (mean demand).     

第三方再制造外包模式选择与协调研究

研究第三方再制造外包选择与协调问题,将制造商外包和零售商外包两种模式进行对比分析.研究结果表明:制造商外包模式下新产品的数量、原始设备制造商的利润以及系统总利润更高,新产品的价格更低;零售商外包模式下再制品的数量、外包价格以及再制造商的利润更高.制造商外包模式具有较高的消费者剩余和较差的环境绩效.当再制造优势明显时,零售商外包模式的社会福利水平高于制造商外包模式.采用合作博弈方法对零售商外包模式下多主体闭环供应链进行协调,可为供应链管理决策提供理论依据与决策方法.     

Dynamic pricing and channel efficiency in the presence of the cost learning effect

This paper investigates the impacts of the supply‐side cost learning effect on dynamic pricing strategies and the channel efficiency in a decentralized supply chain consisting of a manufacturer and a retailer. The unit production cost incurred by the manufacturer declines as the cumulative output increases. With the manufacturer being the price leader, the interactions between the two channel members are modeled as a Stackelberg differential game, where the two channel members dynamically set the wholesale and retail prices over time to optimize their respective profits. We find that while the cost learning effect is beneficial to both channel members in terms of long‐term profitability, such an effect is detrimental to the channel inefficiency caused by price double marginalization. In a setting where the manufacturer sells through competing retailers, we show that the channel efficiency can be improved with the emergence of horizontal competition. Our result also indicates that the channel efficiency with a feedback pricing equilibrium is higher than that with an open‐loop equilibrium.     

风险规避制造商市场入侵策略

针对由风险中性的在位制造商、风险规避的外来制造商和风险中性零售商组成的二级供应链系统,基于Stackelberg博弈理论建立不同市场入侵策略下的决策模型,研究风险规避的外来制造商市场入侵策略选择问题,分析市场入侵和风险规避行为对供应链成员均衡决策的影响.研究发现:当外来制造商通过零售商销售产品时,损害在位制造商的利润,但对零售商有利;当外来制造商通过网络渠道直接向消费者销售产品时,不一定损害在位制造商的利润,存在帕累托改进区域;当外来制造商的风险规避程度较大时,价格战愈发激烈,对自身、在位制造商和零售商都是不利的;外来制造商的市场入侵策略受质量差异程度、风险规避程度、生产成本和直销成本的综合影响;外来制造商选择最优的市场入侵策略时,损害在位制造商的利润,而且供应链系统不能实现帕累托改进.     

Two‐echelon manufacturer–retailer supply chain strategies with price,quality, and promotional effort sensitive demand

This study deals with the two‐layer supply chain model of one manufacturer and one retailer for a single commodity where market demand is assumed to be dependent on selling price, quality of the products, and promotional effort of the retailer. We investigate the behavior of the supply chain under centralized, manufacturer Stackelberg, conditional manufacturer Stackelberg, retailer Stackelberg, conditional retailer Stackelberg, and vertical Nash model structure. The nature of the above models provides great insights to a firm's manager for achieving optimal strategy in a competitive marketing system. Quite often, not all items produced in a firm are of perfect quality; some are perfect (conforming) quality and others are imperfect (nonconforming) quality. The nonconforming products are sold in a secondary shop or by other retailers. The procurement cost of finished products depends on the quality of the products due to more investment in advanced technology, better raw materials, and skilled labor, etc. The warranty policy for the products is also imposed to attract the customers to buy more. Here, both members (manufacturer and retailer) jointly share the cost of the warranty policy. The objective of this paper is to determine the optimal selling price and promotional effort of the retailer, while the optimal wholesale price and quality of the products are determined by the manufacturer so that the above strategies are maximized. Finally, numerical examples with sensitivity analysis of the key parameters are illustrated to investigate the proposed model.     

Pricing and production decisions in dual-channel supply chains with demand disruptions

This paper develops a two-period pricing and production decision model in a one- manufacturer-one-retailer dual-channel supply chain that experiences a disruption in demand during the planning horizon. While disruption management has long been a key research issue in supply chain management, little attention has been given to disruption management in a dual-channel supply chain once the original production plan has been made. Generally, changes to the original production plan induced by a disruption may impose considerable deviation costs throughout the supply chain system. In this paper, we examine how to adjust the prices and the production plan so that the potential maximal profit is obtained under a disruption scenario. We first study the scenario where the manufacturer and the retailer are vertically integrated with demand disruptions. Then we further assume that the manufacturer bears the deviation costs and obtain the manufacturer’s and the retailer’s individual optimal pricing decision, as well as the manufacturer’s optimal production quantity in a decentralized decision-making setting. We derive conditions under which the maximum profit can be achieved. The results indicate that the optimal production quantity has some robustness under a demand disruption, in both centralized and decentralized dual-channel supply chains. We also find that the optimal pricing decisions are affected by customers’ preference for the direct channel and the market scale change, in both centralized and decentralized dual-channel supply chains.     

Pricing decision problem for substitutable products based on uncertainty theory

Increasing studies in marketing and distribution channels have shown that the power of manufacturers and retailers is reversing. In this paper, we consider a pricing decision problem in which two different manufacturers compete to distribute differentiated but substitutable products through a common retailer under different power structures. The manufacturing costs, sales costs and demands are characterized by uncertain variables. Meanwhile, uncertainty theory and game-theory-based modeling approaches are employed to formulate the pricing decision problem with three different power structures under uncertain environment. How to make the optimal pricing decisions on wholesale prices and retailer markups under three possible scenarios is derived. Numerical experiments are also given to examine the effects of power structures on the equilibrium prices and profits in uncertain environment. It is found that if the sales cost is high, consumers can enjoy lower prices when facing a powerful retailer and the super retailer can also make the supply chain more efficient.     

网购环境下提供退款保证时的决策模型研究

研究了不同供应链成员提供退款保证策略及其优化选择问题。考虑了由单个制造商和单个零售商组成的单条供应链,共考虑了三种退款保证策略,即制造商和零售商均不提供退款保证、仅零售商提供退款保证以及仅制造商提供退款保证策略。分别求解得到相应的最优消费者需求量、零售价格、批发价格以及利润的联合决策。研究发现：零售商的商品销售价格、制造商的批发价格、消费者的需求量以及零售商和制造商的利润都与是否提供退款保证服务有关。发现只要当供应链成员提供退款保证服务时商品残值满足一定条件,提供退款保证不仅不会使供应链成员利润降低,反而会提高他们的利润水平;当制造商提供退款保证时商品残值与零售商提供退款保证时商品残值的差值满足一定的条件,供应链中制造商和零售商提供退款保证服务都有可能给供应链带来更高的利润水平。     

考虑产品替代的低碳供应链定价和政府财税

基于低碳经济背景,考虑由政府、制造商和零售商三方博弈构成的供应链,使用Stackelberg博弈和纳什均衡的分析方法求出模型的均衡解,并对比了零售商是否联合两种模式下的社会福利、制造商和零售商利润。结果表明：零售商联合情况下的零售商和制造商利润大于零售商非联合情形,同时产品需求量和社会福利与零售商非联合情形相同。高碳产品市场规模越大,社会福利、零售商和制造商利润会先下降后上升,低碳产品的生产成本增加,社会福利、制造商利润会下降,若零售商不联合,销售高碳产品零售商利润上升,销售低碳产品零售商利润下降,若零售商联合则零售商利润下降。     

再制造/制造集成供应链差别定价策略

为了解决集成供应链的定价问题,应用博弈论方法,对单一制造商和零售商构成的R/M(再制造/制造)集成供应链系统中同类产品的三种不同形式进行了差别定价策略研究,得出了斯坦克尔伯格均衡,并对最优定价策略进行数值仿真和分析.研究结果表明:新产品、再造产品、二手产品三种产品形式存在的R/M集成供应链系统更符合实际情况,而且新产品的价格敏感系数与废旧产品的价格弹性指数对制造商的批发价格、利润和零售商的零售价格、利润均有影响,要想使自身利润最大化必须综合考虑二者的影响.     

考虑政府补贴的新产品与再制造产品定价模型

在有限财政预算下,政府对再制造产品进行补贴,以促进再制造产品的生产和销售.基于此,首先建立政府对制造商进行生产补贴的三层决策模型,该模型中制造商与新产品销售商和再制造产品销售商进行Stackelberg博弈,同时两个销售商之间通过Bertrand博弈确定各自的销售价,通过对解的分析,揭示生产补贴对批发价、销售价以及销售量的影响,并通过与无补贴销售量的比较,进一步给出政府补贴提升再制造产品销量的根本原因;然后给出对再制造产品销售商进行销售补贴下的三层模型,证明销售补贴与生产补贴在影响销售价格、销售量方面的等价性;接着讨论集中决策供应链中新产品与再制造产品销售的二层决策模型,比较集中决策供应链与分散决策供应链再制造产品的销售量高低并分析其原因,指出政府倾向于优先补贴的供应链类型;最后给出一个算例,分析不同类型供应链中再制造产品销售量对参数的敏感性.