Developing a “Water‐Defendable” and “Dendrite‐Free” Lithium‐Metal Anode Using a Simple and Promising GeCl4 Pretreatment Method

Lithium metal is an ultimate anode in “next‐generation” rechargeable batteries, such as Li–sulfur batteries and Li–air (Li–O₂) batteries. However, uncontrollable dendritic Li growth and water attack have prevented its practical applications, especially for open‐system Li–O₂ batteries. Here, it is reported that the issues can be addressed via the facile process of immersing the Li metal in organic GeCl₄–THF steam for several minutes before battery assembly. This creates a 1.5 µm thick protection layer composed of Ge, GeO_x, Li₂CO₃, LiOH, LiCl, and Li₂O on Li surface that allows stable cycling of Li electrodes both in Li‐symmetrical cells and Li–O₂ cells, especially in “moist” electrolytes (with 1000–10 000 ppm H₂O) and humid O₂ atmosphere (relative humidity (RH) of 45%). This work illustrates a simple and effective way for the unfettered development of Li‐metal‐based batteries.     

High‐Capacity and High‐Rate Discharging of a Coenzyme Q10‐Catalyzed Li–O2 Battery

Discharging of the aprotic Li–O₂ battery relies on O₂ reduction to insulating solid Li₂O₂, which can either deposit as thin films on the cathode surface or precipitate as large particles in the electrolyte solution. Toward realizing Li–O₂ batteries with high capacity and high rate capability, it is crucially important to discharge Li₂O₂ in the electrolyte solution rather than on the cathode surface. Here, a soluble electrocatalyst of coenzyme Q₁₀ (CoQ₁₀) that can efficaciously drive solution phase formation of Li₂O₂ in current benchmark ether‐based Li–O₂ batteries is reported, which would otherwise lead to Li₂O₂ surface‐film growth and premature cell death. In the range of current densities of 0.1–0.5 mA cm^?2_areal, the CoQ₁₀‐catalyzed Li–O₂ battery can deliver a discharge capacity that is ≈40–100 times what the pristine Li–O₂ battery could achieve. The drastically enhanced electrochemical performance is attributed to the CoQ₁₀ that not only efficiently mediates the electron transfer from the cathode to dissolve O₂ but also strongly interacts with the newly formed Li₂O₂ in solution retarding its precipitation on the cathode surface. The mediated oxygen reduction reaction and the bonding mechanism between CoQ₁₀ and Li₂O₂ are understood with density functional theory calculations.     

A Li–Air Battery with Ultralong Cycle Life in Ambient Air

The Li–air battery represents a promising power candidate for future electronics due to its extremely high energy density. However, the use of Li–air batteries is largely limited by their poor cyclability in ambient air. Herein, Li–air batteries with ultralong 610 cycles in ambient air are created by combination of low‐density polyethylene film that prevents water erosion and gel electrolyte that contains a redox mediator of LiI. The low‐density polyethylene film can restrain the side reactions of the discharge product of Li₂O₂ to Li₂CO₃ in ambient air, while the LiI can facilitate the electrochemical decomposition of Li₂O₂ during charging, which improves the reversibility of the Li–air battery. All the components of the Li–air battery are flexible, which is particularly desirable for portable and wearable electronic devices.     

A Long‐Cycle‐Life Lithium–CO2 Battery with Carbon Neutrality

Lithium–CO₂ batteries are attractive energy‐storage systems for fulfilling the demand of future large‐scale applications such as electric vehicles due to their high specific energy density. However, a major challenge with Li–CO₂ batteries is to attain reversible formation and decomposition of the Li₂CO₃ and carbon discharge products. A fully reversible Li–CO₂ battery is developed with overall carbon neutrality using MoS₂ nanoflakes as a cathode catalyst combined with an ionic liquid/dimethyl sulfoxide electrolyte. This combination of materials produces a multicomponent composite (Li₂CO₃/C) product. The battery shows a superior long cycle life of 500 for a fixed 500 mAh g^?1 capacity per cycle, far exceeding the best cycling stability reported in Li–CO₂ batteries. The long cycle life demonstrates that chemical transformations, making and breaking covalent C? O bonds can be used in energy‐storage systems. Theoretical calculations are used to deduce a mechanism for the reversible discharge/charge processes and explain how the carbon interface with Li₂CO₃ provides the electronic conduction needed for the oxidation of Li₂CO₃ and carbon to generate the CO₂ on charge. This achievement paves the way for the use of CO₂ in advanced energy‐storage systems.     

A Quasi‐Solid‐State Flexible Fiber‐Shaped Li–CO2 Battery with Low Overpotential and High Energy Efficiency

The rapid development of wearable electronics requires a revolution of power accessories regarding flexibility and energy density. The Li–CO₂ battery was recently proposed as a novel and promising candidate for next‐generation energy‐storage systems. However, the current Li–CO₂ batteries usually suffer from the difficulties of poor stability, low energy efficiency, and leakage of liquid electrolyte, and few flexible Li–CO₂ batteries for wearable electronics have been reported so far. Herein, a quasi‐solid‐state flexible fiber‐shaped Li–CO₂ battery with low overpotential and high energy efficiency, by employing ultrafine Mo₂C nanoparticles anchored on a carbon nanotube (CNT) cloth freestanding hybrid film as the cathode, is demonstrated. Due to the synergistic effects of the CNT substrate and Mo₂C catalyst, it achieves a low charge potential below 3.4 V, a high energy efficiency of ≈80%, and can be reversibly discharged and charged for 40 cycles. Experimental results and theoretical simulation show that the intermediate discharge product Li₂C₂O₄ stabilized by Mo₂C via coordinative electrons transfer should be responsible for the reduction of overpotential. The as‐fabricated quasi‐solid‐state flexible fiber‐shaped Li–CO₂ battery can also keep working normally even under various deformation conditions, giving it great potential of becoming an advanced energy accessory for wearable electronics.     

Water-Trapping Single-Atom Co-N4/Graphene Triggering Direct 4e− LiOH Chemistry for Rechargeable Aprotic Li–O2 Batteries

Lithium–oxygen (Li–O₂) batteries have received extensive attention owing to ultrahigh theoretical energy density. Compared to typical discharge product Li₂O₂, LiOH has attracted much attention for its better chemical and electrochemical stability. Large-scale applications of Li–O₂ batteries with LiOH chemistry are hampered by the serious internal shuttling of the water additives with the desired 4e⁻ electrochemical reactions. Here, a metal organic framework-derived “water-trapping” single-atom-Co-N₄/graphene catalyst (Co-SA-rGO) is provided that successfully mitigates the water shuttling and enables the direct 4e⁻ catalytic reaction of LiOH in the aprotic Li–O₂ battery. The Co-N₄ center is more active toward proton-coupled electron transfer, benefiting - direction 4e⁻ formation of LiOH. 3D interlinked networks also provide large surface area and mesoporous structures to trap ≈12 wt% H₂O molecules and offer rapid tunnels for O₂ diffusion and Li⁺ transportation. With these unique features, the Co-SA-rGO based Li–O₂ battery delivers a high discharge platform of 2.83 V and a large discharge capacity of 12 760.8 mAh g⁻¹. Also, the battery can withstand corrosion in the air and maintain a stable discharge platform for 220 cycles. This work points out the direction of enhanced electron/proton transfer for the single-atom catalyst design in Li–O₂ batteries.     

Fundamental Understanding of Water‐Induced Mechanisms in Li–O2 Batteries: Recent Developments and Perspectives

Modern sustainability challenges in recent years have warranted the development of new energy storage technologies. Practical realization of the lithium–O₂ battery holds great promise for revolutionizing energy storage as it holds the highest theoretical specific energy of any rechargeable battery yet discovered. However, the complete realization of Li–O₂ batteries necessitates ambient air operations, which presents quite a few challenges, as carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O) contaminants introduce unwanted byproducts from side reactions that greatly affect battery performance. Although current research has thoroughly explored the beneficial incorporation of CO₂, much mystery remains over the inconsistent effects of H₂O. The presence of water in both the cathode and electrolyte has been observed to alter reaction mechanisms differently, resulting in a diverse range of effects on voltage, capacity, and cyclability. Moreover, recent preliminary research with catalysts and redox mediators has attempted to utilize the presence of water to the battery's benefit. Here, the key mechanism discrepancies of water‐afflicted Li–O₂ batteries are presented, concluding with a perspective on future research directions for nonaqueous Li–O₂ batteries.     

Oxygen Reduction Reaction Promotes Li+ Desorption from Cathode Surface in Li‐O2 Batteries

Li‐O₂ batteries are claimed to be one of the future energy storage technologies. Great number of scientific and technological challenges should be solved first to transform Li‐O₂ battery from a promise to real practical devices. Proposed mechanisms for oxygen reduction assume a reservoir of solved Li⁺ ions in the electrolyte. However, the role that adsorbed Li⁺ on the electrode surface might have on the overall oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) has not deserved much attention. Adsorbed Li⁺ consumption is monitored here using impedance measurements from extended electrochemical double layer capacitance, which depends on the carbon matrix surface area. The presence of O₂ drastically reduces the amount of adsorbed Li⁺, signaling the kinetic competition between Li⁺ surface adsorption and its consumption, only for potentials corresponding to the oxygen reduction reaction. Noticeably double layer capacitance remains unaltered after cycling. This fact suggests that the ORR products (Li₂O₂ and Li₂CO₃) are not covering the internal electrode surface, but deposited on the outer electrode‐contact interface, hindering thereby the subsequent reaction. Current results show new insights into the discharge mechanism of Li‐O₂ batteries and reveal the evidence of Li⁺ desorption from the C surface when the ORR starts.     

Redox Mediators for Li–O2 Batteries: Status and Perspectives

Li–O₂ batteries have received much attention due to their extremely large theoretical energy density. However, the high overpotentials required for charging Li–O₂ batteries lower their energy efficiency and degrade the electrolytes and carbon electrodes. This problem is one of the main obstacles in developing practical Li–O₂ batteries. To solve this problem, it is important to facilitate the oxidation of Li₂O₂ upon charging by using effective electrocatalysis. Using solid catalysts is not too effective for oxidizing the electronically isolating Li‐peroxide layers. In turn, for soluble catalysts, red‐ox mediators (RMs) are homogeneously dissolved in the electrolyte solutions and can effectively oxidize all of the Li₂O₂ precipitated during discharge. RMs can decompose solid Li₂O₂ species no matter their size, morphology, or thickness and thus dramatically increase energy efficiency. However, some negative side effects, such as the shuttle reactions of RMs and deterioration of the Li‐metal occur. Therefore, it is necessary to study the activity and stability of RMs in Li–O₂ batteries in detail. Herein, recent studies related to redox mediators are reviewed and the mechanisms of redox reactions are illustrated. The development opportunities of RMs for this important battery technology are discussed and future directions are suggested.     

Recent Progress in the Design of Advanced Cathode Materials and Battery Models for High‐Performance Lithium‐X (X = O2, S,Se, Te,I2, Br2) Batteries

Recent advances and achievements in emerging Li‐X (X = O₂, S, Se, Te, I₂, Br₂) batteries with promising cathode materials open up new opportunities for the development of high‐performance lithium‐ion battery alternatives. In this review, we focus on an overview of recent important progress in the design of advanced cathode materials and battery models for developing high‐performance Li‐X (X = O₂, S, Se, Te, I₂, Br₂) batteries. We start with a brief introduction to explain why Li‐X batteries are important for future renewable energy devices. Then, we summarize the existing drawbacks, major progress and emerging challenges in the development of cathode materials for Li‐O₂ (S) batteries. In terms of the emerging Li‐X (Se, Te, I₂, Br₂) batteries, we systematically summarize their advantages/disadvantages and recent progress. Specifically, we review the electrochemical performance of Li‐Se (Te) batteries using carbonate‐/ether‐based electrolytes, made with different electrode fabrication techniques, and of Li‐I₂ (Br₂) batteries with various cell designs (e.g., dual electrolyte, all‐organic electrolyte, with/without cathode‐flow mode, and fuel cell/solar cell integration). Finally, the perspective on and challenges for the development of cathode materials for the promising Li‐X (X = O₂, S, Se, Te, I₂, Br₂) batteries is presented.     

The Salt Matters: Enhanced Reversibility of Li–O2 Batteries with a Li[(CF3SO2)(n‐C4F9SO2)N]‐Based Electrolyte

The safety hazards and cycle instability of lithium metal anodes (LMA) constitute significant barriers to progress in lithium metal batteries. This situation is worse in Li–O₂ batteries because the LMA is prone to be chemically attacked by O₂ shuttled from the cathode. Notwithstanding, efforts on LMA are much sparse than those on the cathode in the realm of Li–O₂ batteries. Here, a novel lithium salt of Li[(CF₃SO₂)(n‐C₄F₉SO₂)N] (LiTNFSI) is reported, which can effectively suppress the parasitic side reactions and dendrite growth of LMA during cycling and thereby significantly enhance the overall reversibility of Li–O₂ batteries. A variety of advanced research tools are employed to scrutinize the working principles of the LiTNFSI salt. It is revealed that a stable, uniform, and O₂‐resistive solid electrolyte interphase is formed on LMA, and hence the “cross‐talk” between the LMA and O₂ shuttled from the cathode is remarkably inhibited in LiTNFSI‐based Li–O₂ batteries.     

A Metal–Organic‐Framework‐Based Electrolyte with Nanowetted Interfaces for High‐Energy‐Density Solid‐State Lithium Battery

Solid‐state batteries (SSBs) are promising for safer energy storage, but their active loading and energy density have been limited by large interfacial impedance caused by the poor Li⁺ transport kinetics between the solid‐state electrolyte and the electrode materials. To address the interfacial issue and achieve higher energy density, herein, a novel solid‐like electrolyte (SLE) based on ionic‐liquid‐impregnated metal–organic framework nanocrystals (Li‐IL@MOF) is reported, which demonstrates excellent electrochemical properties, including a high room‐temperature ionic conductivity of 3.0 × 10^‐4 S cm^‐1, an improved Li⁺ transference number of 0.36, and good compatibilities against both Li metal and active electrodes with low interfacial resistances. The Li‐IL@MOF SLE is further integrated into a rechargeable Li|LiFePO₄ SSB with an unprecedented active loading of 25 mg cm^‐2, and the battery exhibits remarkable performance over a wide temperature range from ?20 up to 150 °C. Besides the intrinsically high ionic conductivity of Li‐IL@MOF, the unique interfacial contact between the SLE and the active electrodes owing to an interfacial wettability effect of the nanoconfined Li‐IL guests, which creates an effective 3D Li⁺ conductive network throughout the whole battery, is considered to be the key factor for the excellent performance of the SSB.     

High‐Performance Integrated Self‐Package Flexible Li–O2 Battery Based on Stable Composite Anode and Flexible Gas Diffusion Layer

With the rising development of flexible and wearable electronics, corresponding flexible energy storage devices with high energy density are required to provide a sustainable energy supply. Theoretically, rechargeable flexible Li–O₂ batteries can provide high specific energy density; however, there are only a few reports on the construction of flexible Li–O₂ batteries. Conventional flexible Li–O₂ batteries possess a loose battery structure, which prevents flexibility and stability. The low mechanical strength of the gas diffusion layer and anode also lead to a flexible Li–O₂ battery with poor mechanical properties. All these attributes limit their practical applications. Herein, the authors develop an integrated flexible Li–O₂ battery based on a high‐fatigue‐resistance anode and a novel flexible stretchable gas diffusion layer. Owing to the synergistic effect of the stable electrocatalytic activity and hierarchical 3D interconnected network structure of the free‐standing cathode, the obtained flexible Li–O₂ batteries exhibit superior electrochemical performance, including a high specific capacity, an excellent rate capability, and exceptional cycle stability. Furthermore, benefitting from the above advantages, the as‐fabricated flexible batteries can realize excellent mechanical and electrochemical stability. Even after a thousand cycles of the bending process, the flexible Li–O₂ battery can still possess a stable open‐circuit voltage, a high specific capacity, and a durable cycle performance.     

A Co‐Doped MnO2 Catalyst for Li‐CO2 Batteries with Low Overpotential and Ultrahigh Cyclability

Li‐CO₂ batteries can not only capture CO₂ to solve the greenhouse effect but also serve as next‐generation energy storage devices on the merits of economical, environmentally‐friendly, and sustainable aspects. However, these batteries are suffering from two main drawbacks: high overpotential and poor cyclability, severely postponing the acceleration of their applications. Herein, a new Co‐doped alpha‐MnO₂ nanowire catalyst is prepared for rechargeable Li‐CO₂ batteries, which exhibits a high capacity (8160 mA h g^?1 at a current density of 100 mA g^?1), a low overpotential (≈0.73 V), and an ultrahigh cyclability (over 500 cycles at a current density of 100 mA g^?1), exceeding those of Li‐CO₂ batteries reported so far. The reaction mechanisms are interpreted depending on in situ experimental observations in combination with density functional theory calculations. The outstanding electrochemical properties are mostly associated with a high conductivity, a large fraction of hierarchical channels, and a unique Co interstitial doping, which might be of benefit for the diffusion of CO₂, the reversibility of Li₂CO₃ products, and the prohibition of side reactions between electrolyte and electrode. These results shed light on both CO₂ fixation and new Li‐CO₂ batteries for energy storage.     

Component‐Interaction Reinforced Quasi‐Solid Electrolyte with Multifunctionality for Flexible Li–O2 Battery with Superior Safety under Extreme Conditions

High‐performance flexible lithium–oxygen (Li–O₂) batteries with excellent safety and stability are urgently required due to the rapid development of flexible and wearable devices. Herein, based on an integrated solid‐state design by taking advantage of component‐interaction between poly(vinylidene fluoride‐co‐hexafluoropropylene) and nanofumed silica in polymer matrix, a stable quasi‐solid‐state electrolyte (PS‐QSE) for the Li–O₂ battery is proposed. The as‐assembled Li–O₂ battery containing the PS‐QSE exhibits effectively improved anodic reversibility (over 200 cycles, 850 h) and cycling stability of the battery (89 cycles, nearly 900 h). The improvement is attributed to the stability of the PS‐QSE (including electrochemical, chemical, and mechanical stability), as well as the effective protection of lithium anode from aggressive soluble intermediates generated in cathode. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the interaction among the components plays a pivotal role in modulating the Li‐ion conducting mechanism in the as‐prepared PS‐QSE. Moreover, the pouch‐type PS‐QSE based Li–O₂ battery also shows wonderful flexibility, tolerating various deformations thanks to its integrated solid‐state design. Furthermore, holes can be punched through the Li–O₂ battery, and it can even be cut into any desired shape, demonstrating exceptional safety. Thus, this type of battery has the potential to meet the demands of tailorability and comformability in flexible and wearable electronics.     

Graphene Oxide Sieving Membrane for Improved Cycle Life in High‐Efficiency Redox‐Mediated Li–O2 batteries

As soluble catalysts, redox‐mediators (RMs) endow mobility to catalysts for unconstrained access to tethered solid discharge products, lowering the energy barrier for Li₂O₂ formation/decomposition; however, this desired mobility is accompanied by the undesirable side effect of RM migration to the Li metal anode. The reaction between RMs and Li metal degrades both the Li metal and the RMs, leading to cell deterioration within a few cycles. To extend the cycle life of redox‐mediated Li–O₂ batteries, herein graphene oxide (GO) membranes are reported as RM‐blocking separators. It is revealed that the size of GO nanochannels is narrow enough to reject 5,10‐dihydro‐5,10‐dimethylphenazine (DMPZ) while selectively allowing the transport of smaller Li⁺ ions. The negative surface charges of GO further repel negative ions via Donnan exclusion, greatly improving the lithium ion transference number. The Li–O₂ cells with GO membranes efficiently harness the redox‐mediation activity of DMPZ for improved performance, achieving energy efficiency of above 80% for more than 25 cycles, and 90% for 78 cycles when the capacity limits were 0.75 and 0.5 mAh cm^‐2, respectively. Considering the facile preparation of GO membranes, RM‐sieving GO membranes can be cost‐effective and processable functional separators in Li–O₂ batteries.     

CO2 Nanoenrichment and Nanoconfinement in Cage of Imine Covalent Organic Frameworks for High‐Performance CO2 Cathodes in Li‐CO2 Batteries

The Li‐CO₂ battery is an emerging green energy technology coupling CO₂ capture and conversion. The main drawback of present Li‐CO₂ batteries is serious polarization and poor cycling caused by random deposition of lithium ions and big insulated Li₂CO₃ formation on the cathode during discharge. Herein, covalent organic frameworks (COF) are identified as the porous catalyst in the cathode of Li‐CO₂ batteries for the first time. Graphene@COF is fabricated, graphene with thin and uniform imine COF loading, to enrich and confine CO₂ in the nanospaces of micropores. The discharge voltage is raised by higher local CO₂ concentration, which is predicted by the Nernst equation and realized by CO₂ nanoenrichment. Moreover, uniform lithium ion deposition directed by the graphene@COF nanoconfined CO₂ can produce smaller Li₂CO₃ particles, leading to easier Li₂CO₃ decomposition and thus lower charge voltage. The graphene@COF cathode with 47.5% carbon content achieves a discharge capacity of 27833 mAh g^?1 at 75 mA g^?1, while retaining a low charge potential of 3.5 V at 0.5 A g^?1 for 56 cycles.     

A Highly Reversible Long‐Life Li–CO2 Battery with a RuP2‐Based Catalytic Cathode

Rechargeable Li–CO₂ batteries have attracted worldwide attention due to the capability of CO₂ capture and superhigh energy density. However, they still suffer from poor cycling performance and huge overpotential. Thus, it is essential to explore highly efficient catalysts to improve the electrochemical performance of Li–CO₂ batteries. Here, phytic acid (PA)‐cross‐linked ruthenium complexes and melamine are used as precursors to design and synthesize RuP₂ nanoparticles highly dispersed on N, P dual‐doped carbon films (RuP₂‐NPCFs), and the obtained RuP₂‐NPCF is further applied as the catalytic cathode for Li–CO₂ batteries. RuP₂ nanoparticles that are uniformly deposited on the surface of NPCF show enhanced catalytic activity to decompose Li₂CO₃ at low charge overpotential. In addition, the NPCF its with porous structure in RuP₂‐NPCF provides superior electrical conductivity, high electrochemical stability, and enough ion/electron and space for the reversible reaction in Li–CO₂ batteries. Hence, the RuP₂‐NPCF cathode delivers a superior reversible discharge capacity of 11951 mAh g^?1, and achieves excellent cyclability for more than 200 cycles with low overpotentials (<1.3 V) at the fixed capacity of 1000 mAh g^?1. This work paves a new way to design more effective catalysts for Li–CO₂ batteries.     

Textile Inspired Lithium–Oxygen Battery Cathode with Decoupled Oxygen and Electrolyte Pathways

The lithium–air (Li–O₂) battery has been deemed one of the most promising next‐generation energy‐storage devices due to its ultrahigh energy density. However, in conventional porous carbon–air cathodes, the oxygen gas and electrolyte often compete for transport pathways, which limit battery performance. Here, a novel textile‐based air cathode is developed with a triple‐phase structure to improve overall battery performance. The hierarchical structure of the conductive textile network leads to decoupled pathways for oxygen gas and electrolyte: oxygen flows through the woven mesh while the electrolyte diffuses along the textile fibers. Due to noncompetitive transport, the textile‐based Li–O₂ cathode exhibits a high discharge capacity of 8.6 mAh cm^?2, a low overpotential of 1.15 V, and stable operation exceeding 50 cycles. The textile‐based structure can be applied to a range of applications (fuel cells, water splitting, and redox flow batteries) that involve multiple phase reactions. The reported decoupled transport pathway design also spurs potential toward flexible/wearable Li–O₂ batteries.     

Flexible,Flame‐Resistant,and Dendrite‐Impermeable Gel‐Polymer Electrolyte for Li–O2/Air Batteries Workable Under Hurdle Conditions

Gel‐polymer electrolytes are considered as a promising candidate for replacing the liquid electrolytes to address the safety concerns in Li–O₂/air batteries. In this work, by taking advantage of the hydrogen bond between thermoplastic polyurethane and aerogel SiO₂ in gel polymer, a highly crosslinked quasi‐solid electrolyte (FST‐GPE) with multifeatures of high ionic conductivity, high mechanical flexibility, favorable flame resistance, and excellent Li dendrite impermeability is developed. The resulting gel‐polymer Li–O₂/air batteries possess high reaction kinetics and stabilities due to the unique electrode–electrolyte interface and fast O₂ diffusion in cathode, which can achieve up to 250 discharge–charge cycles (over 1000 h) in oxygen gas. Under ambient air atmosphere, excellent performances are observed for coin‐type cells over 20 days and for prototype cells working under extreme bending conditions. Moreover, the FST‐GPE electrolyte also exhibits durability to protect against fire, dendritic Li, and H₂O attack, demonstrating great potential for the design of practical Li–O₂/air batteries.