A review of large‐scale electrical energy storage

This paper gives a broad overview of a plethora of energy storage technologies available on the large‐scale complimented with their capabilities conducted by a thorough literature survey. According to the capability graphs generated, thermal energy storage, flow batteries, lithium ion, sodium sulphur, compressed air energy storage, and pumped hydro storage are suitable for large‐scale storage in the order of 10's to 100's of MWh; metal air batteries have a high theoretical energy density equivalent to that of gasoline along with being cost efficient; compressed air energy storage has the lowest capital energy cost in comparison to other energy storage technologies; flywheels, super conducting magnetic storage, super capacitors, capacitors, and pumped hydro storage have very low energy density; compressed air energy storage, cryogenic energy storage, thermal energy storage, and batteries have relatively high energy density; high efficiencyin tandem with high energy density results in a cost efficient storage system; and power density pitted against energy density provides a clear demarcation between power and energy applications. This paper also provides a mathematical model for thermal energy storage as a battery. Furthermore, a comprehensive techno‐economic evaluation of the various energy storage technologies would assist in the development of an energy storage technology roadmap. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Energy conservation in the UK

This study starts with an analysis of past energy ‘conservation’ by relating energy use to output in the period 1900–1980. The results of a survey in manufacturing industries and local authority services are then presented, aimed at assessing the conservation effort since 1973 and that planned for the near future; the emphasis is on the measures and their results that can be realistically expected. Obstacles to conservation are analysed on the basis of the sample survey. Among the other consuming sectors transport and household use are discussed in some detail,with the conclusion that energy requirements in the UK are unlikely to exceed the 1979 level during the decade to 1990.     

A review of electrical energy storage technologies for renewable power generation and smart grids

储能技术是突破可再生能源大规模开发利用瓶颈的关键技术,是智能电网的必要组成部分.在储能市场商业化雏形阶段,系统性的比较分析各类储能技术的性能特点,为未来市场发展提供筛选技术路线的框架基础至关重要.本文阐述了储能技术在可再生能源发电和智能电网中的作用,对物理储能(抽水蓄能,压缩空气储能,飞轮储能),电化学储能(二次电池,液流电池),其它化学储能(氢能,合成天然气)等储能技术进行了系统的比较与分析,最后提出储能技术的发展趋势.     

液流电池储能技术研究现状与展望

液流电池技术利用流动的电解液作为电化学储能介质,适合于进行大容量电能与化学能的转化与储存。液流电池通常具有寿命长、效率高等技术特征,在平滑风能、太阳能等可再生能源发电出力以及微型电网、智能电网建设等方面有着广阔的应用前景。本文论述了液流电池的研究与开发现状,概述了目前逐渐具备工程实施能力的全钒液流电池体系,分析了液流电池新体系的研究开发状况,指明了它们各自需要进行技术突破的重要问题,最后展望了金属/ 空气液流电池的技术优势与未来发展前景。     

Commercial and research battery technologies for electrical energy storage applications

Developing green energy solutions has become crucial to society. However, to develop a clean and renewable energy system, significant developments must be made, not only in energy conversion technologies (such as solar panels and wind turbines) but also regarding the feasibility and capabilities of stationary electrical energy storage (EES) systems. Many types of EES systems have been considered such as pumped hydroelectric storage (PHS), compressed air energy storage (CAES), flywheels, and electrochemical storage. Among them, electrochemical storage such as battery has the advantage of being more efficient compared to other candidates, because it is more suitable in terms of the scalability, efficiency, lifetime, discharge time, and weight and/or mobility of the system. Currently, rechargeable lithium ion batteries (LIBs) are the most successful portable electricity storage devices, but their use is limited to small electronic equipment. Using LIBs to store large amounts of electrical energy in stationary applications is limited, not only by performance but also by cost. Thus, a viable battery technology that can store large amounts of electrical energy in stationary applications is needed. In this review, well-developed and recent progress on the chemistry and design of batteries, as well as their effects on the electrochemical performance, is summarized and compared. In addition, the challenges that are yet to be solved and the possibilities for further improvements are explored.     

Selection of metal hydrides-based thermal energy storage: Energy storage efficiency and density targets

Thermo-chemical energy storage based on metal hydrides has gained tremendous interest in solar heat storage applications such as concentrated solar power systems (CSP) and parabolic troughs. In such systems, two metal hydride beds are connected and operating in an alternative way as energy storage or hydrogen storage. However, the selection of metal hydrides is essential for a smooth operation of these CSP systems in terms of energy storage efficiency and density. In this study, thermal energy storage systems using metal hydrides are modeled and analyzed in detail using first law of thermodynamics. For these purpose, four conventional metal hydrides are selected namely LaNi₅, Mg, Mg₂Ni and Mg₂FeH₆. The comparison of performance is made in terms of volumetric energy storage and energy storage efficiency. The effects of operating conditions (temperature, hydrogen pressure and heat transfer fluid mass flow rates) and reactor design on the aforementioned performance metrics are studied and discussed in detail. The preliminary results showed that Mg-based hydrides store energy ranging from 1.3 to 2.4 GJ m^?3 while the energy storage can be as low as 30% due to their slow intrinsic kinetics. On the other hand, coupling Mg-based hydrides with LaNi₅ allow us to recover heat at a useful temperature above 330 K with low energy density ca.500 MJ m^?3 provided suitable operating conditions are selected. The results of this study will be helpful to screen out all potentially viable hydrides materials for heat storage applications.     

Hydrogen storage technology: Current status and prospects

储氢技术作为氢气生产与使用之间的桥梁,至关重要。本文综述了目前常用的储氢技术,主要包括物理储氢、化学储氢与其它储氢。物理储氢主要包括高压气态储氢与低温液化储氢,具有低成本、易放氢、氢气浓度高等特点,但安全性较低。化学储氢包括有机液体储氢、液氨储氢、配位氢化物储氢、无机物储氢与甲醇储氢。其虽保证了安全性,但其放氢难,且易发生副反应,氢气浓度较低。其它储氢技术包括吸附储氢与水合物法储氢。吸附储氢技术的储氢效率受吸附剂的影响较大,且不同程度的存在放氢难、成本高、储氢密度不高等问题。水合物法储氢具有易脱氢、成本低、能耗低等特点,但其储氢密度较低。在此基础上,本文基于现状分析,简要展望了储氢技术今后的研究方向。     

Energy storage: The route to liberation from the fossil fuel economy?

If a low-carbon energy strategy is to be developed up to 2050, renewable energy sources will need to be deployed on a large scale against a scenario of increasing global energy demand. Renewables will vary from large-scale regional wind and marine clusters to more localised ‘micro’ generation. If a low-carbon strategy is to be successful, automotive transport will also need to be linked to the renewable infrastructure. Both of these need the development of efficient and viable energy storage.     

Utility-scale subsurface hydrogen storage: UK perspectives and technology

To reduce effects from anthropogenically induced climate change renewable energy systems are being implemented at an accelerated rate, the UKs wind capacity alone is set to more than double by 2030. However, the intermittency associated with these systems presents a challenge to their effective implementation. This is estimated to lead to the curtailment of up to 7.72 TWh by 2030. Through electrolysis, this surplus can be stored chemically in the form of hydrogen to contribute to the 15 TWh required by 2050. The low density of hydrogen constrains above ground utility-scale storage systems and thus leads to exploration of the subsurface.This literature review describes the challenges and barriers, geological criteria and geographical availability of all utility-scale hydrogen storage technologies with a unique UK perspective. This is furthered by discussion of current research (primarily numerical models), with particular attention to porous storage as geographical constraints will necessitate its deployment within the UK. Finally, avenues of research which could further current understanding are discussed.     

Application of superconducting magnetic energy storage in electrical power and energy systems: a review

Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) is known to be an excellent high‐efficient energy storage device. This article is focussed on various potential applications of the SMES technology in electrical power and energy systems. SMES device founds various applications, such as in microgrids, plug‐in hybrid electrical vehicles, renewable energy sources that include wind energy and photovoltaic systems, low‐voltage direct current power system, medium‐voltage direct current and alternating current power systems, fuel cell technologies and battery energy storage systems. An extensive bibliography is presented on these applications of SMES. Also, some conclusive remarks in terms of future perspective are presented. Also, the present ongoing developments and constructions are also discussed. This study provides a basic guideline to investigate further technological development and new applications of SMES, and thus benefits the readers, researchers, engineers and academicians who deal with the research works in the area of SMES. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Energy and exergy analyses of cold thermal storage systems

This study deals with the assessment of the thermodynamic performance of cold thermal storage systems using exergy and energy analyses. Several cases are considered, including some storages which are homogeneous, and others which undergo phase changes. In some cases the storages are stratified. A full cycle of charging, storing and discharging is considered for each case. Four cold thermal storage cases are presented in an illustrative example. The results demonstrate that exergy analysis provides more realistic and accurate assessments of the efficiency and performance of cold thermal storage systems than those given by the more conventional energy analysis. In addition, exergy analysis is conceptually more direct since it treats cold as a valuable commodity. It is concluded that the potential usefulness of exergy analysis in addressing and solving cold thermal storage problems is substantial. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Full scale thermal testing of latent heat storage in wallboard

Full scale thermal storage tests were conducted in a room lined with PCM wallboard having latent heat storage capacity. The results were compared with those obtained from tests conducted in a similar room lined with ordinary wallboard. The research showed that PCM wallboard can function efficiently as a thermal storage medium which can be applied to peak load shifting, improved use of waste and solar heat as well as more efficient operation of heating and cooling equipment.     

Application and prospect of zinc nickel battery in energy storage technology

本文介绍了近几年电力储能在全球储能领域的现况及电力储能在现有储能系统中的应用规模。针对目前较成熟的电化学储能电池进行了分析,着重分析了锌镍电池的特点,首先对锌镍电池的低温放电性能、寿命、大电流充放等性能进行了阐述,模拟储能系统充放电实验的结果表明锌镍电池具有循环寿命长和充放电效率高等特点。其次对单液流锌镍电池的工作原理进行了介绍,就目前单液流锌镍电池的各个型号的中试产品以及50 kW·h储能系统进行了总结和讨论,分析表明锌镍电池作为一种新型的蓄电池,其循环寿命长、安全性能好、制造和维护成本较低,随着近几年新材料的发展,锰正极的锌基电池实验成功,促进了锌空气电池、锌铁电池等系列锌基电池的研发,锌镍电池未来在储能市场将会大放异彩。     

飞轮储能技术研究五十年评述CSCD

本文回顾了飞轮储能技术研发50年的历程,分析了飞轮储能技术特点、应用领域以及关键技术问题。飞轮储能具有功率密度高、循环寿命长、响应迅速、能量可观性好以及环境友好的优点。当前,研制的飞轮储能系统单体能量为0.5~130 kW·h,功率为0.3~3000 kW。重点关注了飞轮用低成本高比强度新材料、高温超导磁悬浮技术。飞轮储能在电能质量调控、不间断过渡电源以及电网调频领域实现了商业化应用,在车辆混合动力领域的示范应用中实现节能20%~30%,处于产业应用的临界点。针对电网规模大功率、高能量储能需求,发展趋势是由数十千瓦时以下发展到百千瓦时,并通过阵列化组装成10~100 MW储能系统,放电时间可拓展到1 h。     

The review of thermal management technology for large-scale lithium-ion battery energy storage system

大容量锂离子电池储能系统对完善传统电网和高效利用新能源都具有非常重要的作用。为了实现大容量锂离子电池储能系统的高倍率化、长寿命化以及高安全性,高性能电池热管理系统的研发刻不容缓。本文总结了温度对锂离子电池性能的影响规律,综述了空冷、液冷、热管冷却、相变冷却这4种典型热管理技术的研究概况,分析了热管理技术在锂离子电池储能系统中的应用与研究状况。随着锂离子电池储能系统工作倍率的提高,产热量随之增大,对热管理系统的要求也越来越高。下一步的研究工作应围绕空冷系统优化、基于新型冷却介质的液冷系统、经济型热管及多目标优化设计这4方面展开。     

蓄冷节能技术在冷库中的应用研究

对蓄冷节能技术在冷库中的应用进行了方案的可行性探讨,并通过实例进行了经济性分析。结果表明：蓄冷节能技术在冷库中的应用是可行的,但必然增加初投资,蓄冷系统投资额的增加能在3年左右通过运行电费的节省加以回收。     

Energy balance analysis of wind-based pumped hydro storage systems in remote island electrical networks

The introduction of pumped hydro storage (PHS) systems in isolated electrical grids, such as those found in island regions, appears to be a promising solution that is able to face both the high electricity production cost and the continuously increasing power demand encountered in these areas. In this context, the current work presents a methodology for the sizing of PHS systems that exploit the excess wind energy amounts produced by local wind farms, otherwise rejected due to imposed electrical grid limitations. The methodology is accordingly applied to the Greek island of Lesbos. Initially, a calculation of the wind power penetration ability to the local grid is carried out and the corresponding curtailments of existing and future wind farms are determined. An integrated computational algorithm is then presented which simulates the operation of the system during an entire year and gives in detail the hourly operational status as well as the various energy losses of the system main components. Based on the application results obtained, the ability of the wind energy to remarkably contribute to the electrification of the remote islands becomes evident.     

Hydrogen key technology to cover the energy storage needs of NEOM City

NEOM City is supposed to be a renewable-energy-only city in Saudi Arabia. The project has planned a huge capacity of non-dispatchable wind and solar photovoltaic but has not addressed yet the issue of a long time, large storage of energy. Battery energy storage is the only product off-the-shelf, and we know already only works for the storage of small amounts of energy over short time frames. The other solutions for energy storage are not off-the-shelf products, but in many cases, only nice ideas to be proven workable. The only other opportunity to make NEOM a truly renewable-energy-only City today is to use the extra wind and solar photovoltaic power to produce hydrogen through electrolyzers, and then partially use this hydrogen to produce the missing electricity to stabilize the grid, and export the excess hydrogen. Adopting extra wind and solar photovoltaic to make NEOM a hydrogen production hub in addition to a renewable-energy-only city is an even more attractive proposition. As NEOM has not fully acknowledged this issue, same as the scientific community, the most likely solution without an urgent debate within the scientific community will be to import electricity from the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels while paying carbon credits, with is inconsistent with the renewable-energy-only aspiration.     

Loss analysis of thermal reservoirs for electrical energy storage schemes

The paper presents an analysis of thermodynamic losses in thermal reservoirs due to irreversible heat transfer and frictional effects. The focus is upon applications to large-scale electricity storage for which it is the loss in availability (or exergy) that is most relevant. Accordingly, results are presented as loss coefficients which are defined as the fractional loss of the entering availability. Only losses stemming from irreversibility are considered – heat losses to the surroundings are not included in the analysis. A number of simplifying assumptions have been adopted, but the results nonetheless clearly demonstrate the dependence of the losses on operating temperatures, reservoir geometry and mode of operation, and point the way towards methods of optimisation. Estimates for a typical installation suggest that the losses are not insignificant, particularly for one-off charge and discharge (i.e., for long-term storage), but remain acceptable for cyclic operation, so as to make the use of thermal reservoirs attractive for electricity storage schemes.     

A review of marine renewable energy storage

Marine renewable energies are promising enablers of a cleaner energy future. Some technologies, like wind, are maturing and have already achieved commercial success. Similar to their terrestrial counterparts, marine renewable energy systems require energy storage capabilities to achieve the flexibility of the 21st century grid demand. The unique difficulties imposed by a harsh marine environment challenge the unencumbered rise of marine renewable energy generation and storage systems. In this study, the fundamentals of marine renewable energy generation technologies are briefed. A comprehensive review and comparison of state‐of‐the‐art novel marine renewable energy storage technologies, including pumped hydro storage (PHS), compressed air energy storage (CAES), battery energy storage (BES), hydrogen energy storage (HES), gravity energy storage (GES), and buoyancy energy storage (ByES), are conducted. The pros and cons, and potential applications, of various marine renewable energy storage technologies are also compiled. Finally, several future trends of marine renewable energy storage technologies are connoted.