Export orientation and domestic electricity generation: Effects on energy efficiency innovation in select sectors

Why are some countries developing many energy efficiency innovations, while others are lagging behind? I argue that export orientation and electricity at low variable cost from nuclear and hydropower plants have an interactive effect on energy efficiency innovation. Export-oriented countries have strong incentives to invest in energy efficiency innovation, as they are in a position to export these technology innovations for global markets. But if inexpensive electricity is supplied in a country, the domestic demand for energy efficiency innovation is missing, and so the home market cannot serve as a springboard for international commercialization. I test this theory against international patent data on energy efficiency innovation in insulation, heating, and lighting for 22 OECD countries, 1991–2007. The statistical analysis indicates that export orientation has large positive effects on energy efficiency innovation in countries that do not rely on nuclear and hydroelectricity.     

Energy efficiency achievements in China׳s industrial and transport sectors: How do they rate?

China is experiencing intensified industrialisation and motorisation. In the world׳s largest emerging economy, energy efficiency is expected to play a critical role in the ever-rising demand for energy. Based on factual overviews and numerical analysis, this article carries out an in-depth investigation into the effectiveness of policies announced or implemented in recent decades targeted at energy conservation in the energy intensive manufacturing and transportation sectors. It highlights nine energy intensive sectors that achieved major improvements in their energy technology efficiency efforts. Under the umbrella of the 11th Five-Year Plan, these sectors׳ performances reflect the effectiveness of China׳s energy conservation governance. Numerous actions have been taken in China to reduce the road transport sector׳s demand for energy and its GHG emissions by implementing fuel economy standards, promoting advanced energy efficient vehicles, and alternative fuels.Coal-based energy saving technologies, especially industrial furnace technologies, are critical for China׳s near and medium-term energy saving. In the long run, renewable energy development and expanding the railway transport system are the most effective ways to reduce energy use and GHG emissions in China. Fuel economy standards could reduce oil consumption and GHGs by 34–35 per cent.     

Potential problems and limitations of energy conservation and energy efficiency

We discuss that whilst energy conservation and energy efficiency both ultimately have the same goal they attempt to achieve this via very different approaches. We then discuss how both options face significant barriers to ultimately successfully reduce electricity consumption.     

Prospective on the energy efficiency and CO2 emissions in the EU cement industry

The cement industry is the third largest carbon emitting industrial sector in the EU. The present work analyses the potential for improvement in the energy efficiency and CO₂ emission reduction for this sector up to 2030. Three scenarios are analysed: baseline scenario (BS) representing the current evolution of the cement sector and two alternative scenarios (AS1 and AS2) studying respectively the sensitivity of fuel prices and CO₂ emission prices. The results for the BS show an improvement in the thermal energy efficiency and the CO₂ emissions per tonne of clinker respectively of 11% and 3.7% in 2030 compared with the level of 2002. However, for AS1 and AS2, these scenarios are insensitive to fuel and CO₂ emission prices, respectively. This can be explained by the fact that a large number of retrofits are economically feasible in the BS, leading to a significant reduction in the thermal energy consumption.     

Benchmarking the energy use of energy-intensive industries in industrialized and in developing countries

Improved energy efficiency is among the key measures for CO₂ emission abatement in the industry. Energy benchmark curves provide data measured at individual plants and they offer a basis to estimate the sectoral energy efficiency improvement potentials (IP) compared to a best practice technology (BPT) currently in operation worldwide. In this paper, we estimate the BPT energy use of 17 industry sectors based on such curves or energy indicators prepared at country-level. We compare BPT data with current energy use to estimate the IP. According to our analysis, BPT offers improvement potentials of 27 ± 8% worldwide. This is equivalent to 32.5 ± 9.6 EJ (exajoules) of final energy savings worldwide, of which three-quarters can be achieved in developing countries. Due to lack of benchmark curves and limited data availability for developing countries, our results include uncertainties. We used literature data at country-level and international energy statistics to fill data gaps and to develop energy indicators. Quality of these data should be improved and benchmark data needs to be collected for more sectors. By doing so, energy benchmarking could become a key tool to estimate energy saving potentials and energy indicators could serve as strong supplementary methodology.     

Towards a sustainable energy balance: progressive efficiency and the return of energy conservation

We argue that a primary focus on energy efficiency may not be sufficient to slow (and ultimately reverse) the growth in total energy consumption and carbon emissions. Instead, policy makers need to return to an earlier emphasis on “conservation,” with energy efficiency seen as a means rather than an end in itself. We briefly review the concept of “intensive” versus “extensive” variables (i.e., energy efficiency versus energy consumption) and why attention to both consumption and efficiency is essential for effective policy in a carbon- and oil-constrained world with increasingly brittle energy markets. To start, energy indicators and policy evaluation metrics need to reflect energy consumption, as well as efficiency. We introduce the concept of “progressive efficiency,” with the expected or required level of efficiency varying as a function of house size, appliance capacity, or more generally, the scale of energy services. We propose introducing progressive efficiency criteria first in consumer information programs (including appliance labeling categories) and then in voluntary rating and recognition programs such as ENERGY STAR. As acceptance grows, the concept could be extended to utility rebates, tax incentives, and ultimately to mandatory codes and standards. For these and other programs, incorporating criteria for consumption, as well as efficiency, offers a path for energy experts, policymakers, and the public to begin building consensus on energy policies that recognize the limits of resources and global carrying capacity. Ultimately, it is both necessary and, we believe, possible to manage energy consumption, not just efficiency, in order to achieve a sustainable energy balance. Along the way, we may find it possible to shift expectations away from perpetual growth and toward satisfaction with sufficiency.

An integrated DEA PCA numerical taxonomy approach for energy efficiency assessment and consumption optimization in energy intensive manufacturing sectors

This paper introduces an integrated approach based on data envelopment analysis (DEA), principal component analysis (PCA) and numerical taxonomy (NT) for total energy efficiency assessment and optimization in energy intensive manufacturing sectors. Total energy efficiency assessment and optimization of the proposed approach considers structural indicators in addition conventional consumption and manufacturing sector output indicators. The validity of the DEA model is verified and validated by PCA and NT through Spearman correlation experiment. Moreover, the proposed approach uses the measure-specific super-efficiency DEA model for sensitivity analysis to determine the critical energy carriers. Four energy intensive manufacturing sectors are discussed in this paper: iron and steel, pulp and paper, petroleum refining and cement manufacturing sectors. To show superiority and applicability, the proposed approach has been applied to refinery sub-sectors of some OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries. This study has several unique features which are: (1) a total approach which considers structural indicators in addition to conventional energy efficiency indicators; (2) a verification and validation mechanism for DEA by PCA and NT and (3) utilization of DEA for total energy efficiency assessment and consumption optimization of energy intensive manufacturing sectors.     

The effect of energy end-use efficiency improvement on China’s energy use and CO2 emissions: a CGE model-based analysis

With its rapid economic growth, China is now confronted with soaring pressure from both its energy supply and the environment. To deal with this conflict, energy end-use efficiency improvement is now promoted by the government as an emphasis for future energy saving. This study explores the general equilibrium effect of energy end-use efficiency improvement on China’s economy, energy use, and CO₂ emissions. This paper develops a static, multisector computable general equilibrium model (CGE) for China, with specific detail in energy use and with the embodiment of energy efficiency. In order to explore the ability of subsidizing non-fossil-generated electricity on moderating potential rebound effects, in this model, the electricity sector was deconstructed into five specific generation activities using bottom–up data from the Chinese electricity industry. The model is calibrated into a 16-sector Chinese Social Accounting Matrix for the year 2002. In the analysis, seven scenarios were established: business as usual, solely efficiency improvement, and five policy scenarios (taxing carbon, subsidized hydropower, subsidized nuclear power, combination of taxing carbon and subsidized hydropower, combination of taxing carbon and subsidized nuclear power). Results show that a sectoral-uniform improvement of energy end-use efficiency will increase rather than decrease the total energy consumption and CO₂ emissions. The sensitivity analysis of sectoral efficiency improvement shows that efficiency improvements happened in different sectors may have obvious different extents of rebound. The three sectors, whose efficient improvements do not drive-up total national energy use and CO₂ emissions, include Iron and Steel, Building Materials, and Construction. Thus, the improvement of energy end-use efficiency should be sectoral specific. When differentiating the sectoral energy-saving goal, not only the saving potential of each sector but also its potential to ease the total rebound should be taken into account. Moreover, since the potential efficiency improvement for a sector over a certain period will be limited, technology measures should work along with a specific policy to neutralize the rebound effect. Results of policy analysis show that one relatively enhanced way is to combine carbon taxing with subsidized hydropower.     

The role of energy efficiency in reducing Scottish and UK CO2 emissions

In 2003, the UK government launched its long-anticipated White Paper on energy, the centrepieces of which were ambitious targets for the production of electricity from renewable technologies and the long-term aspiration of a 60% reduction in UK greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. In the White Paper it was recognised that such a dramatic reduction in emissions will require significant changes in the way in which energy is produced and used. However there has been a general failure to recognise the fact that in order to meet emissions targets, the UK will have to significantly reduce its energy consumption; this is not helped by the general misconception in the UK that reductions in CO₂ emissions will occur simply by increasing the production of electricity from renewable sources.

Specifically, this paper highlights the current trends in renewables deployment and energy demand, with a specific focus on Scotland, where the authorities have set more ambitious renewables targets than the rest of the UK. As will be demonstrated in this paper, without energy demand reduction, the deployment of renewables alone will not be sufficient to curtail growth in UK CO₂ emissions. This is illustrated using a case study of the Scottish housing sector; whilst this case study is necessarily local in scope, the results have global relevance. The paper will also address the magnitude of energy savings required to bring about a reduction in emissions and assesses the status of the policies and technologies that could help bring such reductions about.     

Variables affecting energy efficiency and CO2 emissions in the steel industry

Specific energy consumption (SEC) is an energy efficiency indicator widely used in industry for measuring the energy efficiency of different processes. In this paper, the development of energy efficiency and CO₂ emissions of steelmaking is studied by analysing the energy data from a case mill. First, the specific energy consumption figures were calculated using different system boundaries, such as the process level, mill level and mill site level. Then, an energy efficiency index was developed to evaluate the development of the energy efficiency at the mill site. The effects of different production conditions on specific energy consumption and specific CO₂ emissions were studied by PLS analysis. As theory expects, the production rate of crude steel and the utilisation of recycled steel were shown to affect the development of energy efficiency at the mill site. This study shows that clearly defined system boundaries help to clarify the role of on-site energy conversion and make a difference between the final energy consumption and primary energy consumption of an industrial plant with its own energy production.     

Experimental study on low temperature thermal treatment of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans(PCDD/Fs) in fly ash

The effects of temperature and time on polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) distribution in fly ash of a municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) were studied in a tubular oven under nitrogen atmosphere. The PCDD/Fs in the gas phase and solid phase were detected by high-resolution gas chromatography coupled with low resolution mass spectrometry (HRGC/LRMS) separately. The experimental results showed that the major congener was octa-chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (OCDD) in the gas phase and the low chlorinated congeners were the major products in the solid phase. There were high levels of OCDD in the gas phase in several experimental conditions although the PCDD/Fs in the solid phase could be decomposed. The optimum condition for PCDD/Fs decomposition in fly ash was a heating time of 60 min at 400 °C under nitrogen atmosphere. Translated from Proceedings of the CSEE, 2005, 25(23): 95–99 [译自:中国电机工程学报]     

Light vehicle energy efficiency programs and their impact on Brazilian CO2 emissions

This paper analyses the impact of an energy efficiency program for light vehicles in Brazil on emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂), the main greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Several energy efficiency programs for light vehicles around the world are reviewed. The cases of Japan and Europe were selected for presentation here given their status as current and future world leaders in the control of passenger vehicle fuel consumption. The launching of the National Climate Change Plan and the pressure on the Brazilian car industry due to the world financial crisis make it a good time for the Brazilian government to implement such a program, and its various benefits are highlighted in this study. Three scenarios are established for Brazil covering the 2000–2030 period: the first with no efficiency goals, the second with the Japanese goals applied with a 10 years delay, and the third, with the Japanese goals applied with no delay. The consequences of a vehicular efficiency program and its middle and long-term effects on the consumption of energy and the CO₂ emissions are quantified and discussed. The simulation results indicate that efficiency goals may make an important contribution to reducing vehicular emissions and fuel consumption in Brazil, compared to a baseline scenario.     

The Chinese nonferrous metals industry—energy use and CO2 emissions

China is the largest nonferrous metals producer in the world and largest consumer for six kinds of common nonferrous metals including copper, aluminum, zinc, lead, nickel and tin. This paper provides an overview of the nonferrous metals industry in China, from a CO₂ emissions reduction perspective. It addresses energy use disaggregated by energy carrier and by province. It focuses on an analysis of energy efficiency in the production of aluminum, copper and nickel. A few large-scale enterprises produce most of the aluminum, copper and nickel in China, and use manufacturing facilities that were built within the last 20 years or have recently upgraded their main production equipment and processes. The energy efficiency of these operations is not particularly low compared to international practice. A large number of small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) operate nonferrous metals production facilities which rank low in energy efficiency and therefore are highly energy intensive per unit of physical output. Backward production capacity would be phased out continuously by enforcing the energy intensity norms.     

Implications of process energy efficiency improvements for primary energy consumption and CO2 emissions at the national level

The improvement of energy efficiency is seen as one of the most promising measures for reducing global CO₂ emissions. However, the emission reduction potential may seem different from the industrial plant and policy-maker’s perspectives. This paper evaluates the influences of process heat conservation on CHP electricity production, primary energy consumption and CO₂ emissions from both the mill site and national perspectives. The results indicate that heat conservation in an industrial process may lead to varying results in primary energy consumption and CO₂ emissions, depending on the form of marginal heat production used at the mill site. In the CHP process, reduction of the heat load lowers electricity production, and this reduction may have to be compensated for at the national level. Therefore, the energy conservation potential in industry has to be evaluated by taking into account the connections to the outside society, which means that a wider system boundary than a mill site has to be used. This study demonstrates by theoretical analysis and case mill studies the magnitude of the effects of system boundary definition when evaluating the contribution of an individual energy efficiency investment towards fulfilling the commitment to reduce CO₂ emissions at the national level.     

Policies to reduce energy use and carbon emissions in the UK

The UK differs from may other industrialized nations in that its carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from energy use have declined in recent years despite relatively rapid economic growth. In all sectors but transport, substantial reductions have already occurred in the level of carbon emissions per unit of GDP output. At the same time, a number of official and unofficial studies have pointed out that the UK has one of the largest remaining potentials amongst comparable industrialized countries for achieving further CO₂ reductions through the implementation of cost-effective energy efficiency and fuel switching measures. This paper discusses past and present patterns of energy use and carbons emissions in the UK. The analysis then examines historical trends in UK energy policy and presents policy options for further reducing the UK's energy-use and carbon emissions in the future.     

Examining the role of energy efficiency and non-economic factors in energy demand and CO2 emissions in Nigeria: Policy implications

This paper examines the role of energy efficiency and non-economic factors such as consumers' preferences, lifestyles and values (which have hitherto been ignored) in energy demand and CO₂ emissions modelling for Nigeria. We use a structural time series model to estimate various energy demand and CO₂ intensity models that take account of the aforementioned factors. We adopt preferred models from these estimates to analyse how energy demand and CO₂ emissions in Nigeria might evolve by generating three different future scenarios to 2025. We find energy efficiency and non-economic factors to influence energy demand and CO₂ emissions. The long-run income and price elasticities obtained differ significantly from those in existing studies that have ignored these salient factors. In a business-as-usual scenario, the results indicate that energy demand will continue to grow. Consequently, present policies do not sufficiently mitigate aggregate CO₂ emissions in Nigeria. The lesson for policy makers is that the extant policies introduced to restrain CO₂ emissions (from a production perspective) have to be combined with new policies that influence consumers' lifestyles and behaviours, develop energy efficient technologies and apply low tariffs on imported energy efficient appliances, to drive down CO₂ emissions from a consumption perspective.     

Potential energy savings and environmental impact by implementing energy efficiency standard for household refrigerators in China

With the rapid economic growth and improvement in standard of living, Chinese people are employing more and more household appliances to make their living convenient and comfortable, of which refrigerators are indispensable. Because refrigerators operate continuously irrespective of seasons and regions, the total electricity consumption of refrigerators is huge and consequently causes severe energy-related environmental issues. China has been paying more and more attention to this and issued a national energy efficiency standard, GB12021.2-2003, for refrigerators. This paper first describes the standard briefly. Then it develops a mathematic model to evaluate the potential energy savings and environmental impacts of the standard. The estimated results indicate implementing the standard will save large energy, as well as benefit greatly to environment. Thus, it is very necessary to implement energy efficiency standard for refrigerators in China.     

Reduction of energy consumption and pollution emissions for industrial furnace using hydrogen-rich tail gas

Using the recovered tail gas (FG) that consists of 60 mol% (50–70 mol%) of hydrogen gas to replace heavy fuel oil (FO) as furnace fuel was studied. With higher FG/FO ratios, the hydrogen content in the fuel increases so that the volume of flue gas reduces to reduce the furnace internal pressure that leads to slower uprising velocity of the thermal flow in the furnace and hence more efficient thermal transmission in the furnace. The results reveal that complete replacement of fuel oil with the recovered tail gas will reduce about 45.8% of the resulting flue gas, lower the furnace radiation zone temperature by 45 °C, raise the furnace convection zone temperature by 18 °C. Additionally, the annual savings of heavy fuel oil can be 2.3 × 10⁴ m³ heavy fuel oil with the reduction of 53.4 tons SO_x emission, 21.9 tons of NO_x emission and 4.9 × 10⁴ tons of CO₂ emission. Therefore, reusing the recovered tail gas to completely replace heavy fuel oil (FO) as the furnace fuel along with operational adjustments of fresh air flow rate and flue baffle angles will alleviate the discharge of greenhouse gas.     

The impact of household consumption on energy use and CO2 emissions in China

In this paper, the consumer lifestyle approach is applied to analyze the impact of consumption by urban and rural households on energy use and CO₂ emissions for different regions and income levels in China. Grey Model is used to compare the relationship between energy consumption, consumption expenditure and CO₂ emissions for different lifestyles. The results show that direct energy consumption is diverse for urban households and simple for rural households in China. Direct energy consumption and CO₂ emissions are increasing faster for urban than for rural households. Indirect energy consumption and CO₂ emissions for urban households are much greater than the direct consumption values. The total indirect energy consumption and CO₂ emissions differ by regions and the structures are different, but the latter differences are not obvious. The impact of household income is enormous. Indirect energy consumption and CO₂ emissions are higher for high-income than for low-income households. The structural difference for indirect energy consumption and CO₂ emissions for households with different income levels is significant. The higher the income, the more diverse is the energy consumption and CO₂ emission structure. The structures for indirect energy use and CO₂ emissions are diverse for urban households, but simple for rural households.     

我国西部能源产业集群发展研究

本文简要阐述了西部能源产业集群发展机理,总结研究了产业集群形成的阶段和路径,在分析西部地区承接东部产业转移基础条件和需求的基础上,提出了西部能源产业集群发展的工作重点是:制订规划,选好承接点,完善产业体系,发挥企业的主体作用,创新体制机制,加强政策引导.