High gas dependence for power generation in Thailand: The vulnerability analysis

Thailand uses 74% of its natural gas supply for power generation and 70% of its power comes from gas-based technology. High dependence on natural gas in power generation raises concerns about security of electricity supply that could affect competitiveness of Thai manufacturing and other industries at the global level. The effect of fuel dependence on security of electricity supply has received less emphasis in the literature. Given this gap, this research examines the economic impact of high dependence on natural gas for power generation in Thailand by analyzing the effect of changes in fuel prices (including fuel oil and natural gas) on electricity tariff in Thailand. At the same time, the research quantifies the vulnerability of the Thai economy due to high gas dependence in power generation. Our research shows that for every 10% change in natural gas price, electricity tariff in Thailand would change by 3.5%. In addition, we found that the gas bill for power generation consumed between 1.94% and 3.05% of gross domestic product (GDP) between 2000 and 2004 and in terms of GDP share per unit of energy, gas dependence in power generation is almost similar to that of crude oil import dependence. We also found that the basic metal industry, being an electricity intensive industry, is the most affected industry. Additionally, we find that volatility of gas price is the main factor behind the vulnerability concern. The research accordingly simulates two mitigation options of the problem, namely reducing gas dependence and increasing efficiency of gas-fired power plants, where the results show that these methods can reduce the vulnerability of the country from high gas dependence in power generation.     

All quiet on the eastern front? Disruption scenarios of Russian natural gas supply to Europe

The 2014 Russian–Ukrainian crisis reignited European concerns about natural gas supply security recalling the experiences of 2006 and 2009. However, the European supply situation, regulation and infrastructure have changed, with better diversified import sources, EU member states being better connected and a common regulation on the security of supply has been introduced. Nevertheless, European dependency on natural gas remained high. This paper investigates different Russian natural gas export disruptions scenarios and analyses short- and long-term reactions in Europe. We use the Global Gas Model (GGM), a large-scale mixed complementarity representation of the natural gas sector with a high level of technical granularity with respect to storage and transportation infrastructure. While we find that most of the EU member states are not severely affected by Russian disruptions, some East European countries are very vulnerable. Prioritizing the removal of infrastructure bottlenecks is critical for securing a sufficient natural gas supply to all EU member states.     

Crude oil import policy of Turkey: Historical analysis of determinants and implications since 1968

Turkey is one of the most energy import dependent countries in the world, suffering deeply from the economic and strategic burdens of oil importation. Our purpose is to determine the factors behind the crude oil import policy of Turkey and to measure their contribution to a well-organized import strategy. We implemented a principle component analysis to construct an Oil Import Vulnerability Index (OIVI) based on four factors, which are crude oil import dependency of primary energy consumption, crude oil import bill as a share of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), non-diversification of import sources, and share of oil in total energy import. The contribution of these factors to the OIVI is found to be approximately equal. While an overall deterioration in the OIVI has been observed during periods of increasing oil prices, better diversification of oil import sources has lead to significant improvements. We suggest Turkish policy-makers implement sound policies, emphasizing diversification of crude oil import sources and reduction of the share of crude oil in primary energy imports to increase energy supply security. This study has also demonstrated that it is possible to construct an index representing crude oil vulnerability caused by import dependency.     

Natural gas corridors between the EU and its main suppliers: Simulation results with the dynamic GASTALE model

Growth in gas demand poses a challenge for European energy consumers and other gas-importing countries in terms of an increasing dependency on gas imports and consequently also supply security. This paper focuses on interactions among demand, supply, and investments in natural gas corridors, namely pipeline transport, LNG, and storage facilities, affecting the European natural gas market over the period 2005–2030. A number of policy scenarios, including a business-as-usual (BAU) scenario, are formulated to study the impact of demand uncertainty and delays in investment on the gas transport infrastructure required in the long run in Europe. The analyses indicate that substantial investments in gas transport corridors are needed to accommodate imports and seasonal demand variations. Analysis of scenarios of supply interruption, in the form of suddenly reduced import capacity for particular pipeline routes, indicates that portions of Europe could experience price increases of up to 100% in the case of a year-long interruption. To accommodate import needs and to mitigate possible disruptions, pipeline connections running from East to West need to be given special priority.     

全球油气资源分布及我国海外油气资源战略举措

目前,在全球范围内,油气资源分布不均的格局基本没有改变,虽然油气产量与消费量总体平衡,但地区产消布局极不均衡,未来油气资源接替主要依赖于地质条件更为复杂的区域。虽然近年来我国在获取海外油气资源方面取得了显著成绩,初步建成非洲、中亚—俄罗斯、南美洲、中东和亚太5个海外油气合作区域,西北、东北、西南和海上四大能源进口通道的战略格局已基本形成,但油气供需失衡的形势依然十分严峻。我国利用海外油气资源面临来自石油消费大国、石油生产大国、跨国石油公司以及资源国等多方面的挑战,需要制定更加切实可行的战略目标和保障措施。首先,国内几大石油公司要有全局意识,协调发展;同时要坚持与资源国共同发展的基本原则;不能只以海外权益油气产量为单一目标,要同时兼顾技术发展,形成一体化产业链;要注重进口来源多元化,分散风险。管道气源可考虑中亚—俄罗斯和东南亚地区,近期不宜到中东和北非地区开采油气资源,可通过贸易方式获取。针对全球油气资源的研究要与时俱进,我国政府也应给予石油公司最大限度的支持,同时要充分发挥上海合作组织的作用。     

Overview of the Northeast Asia energy situation

Rapid economic growth in Northeast Asia has vastly increased regional needs for energy services. In several countries of the region, this ongoing growth has been accompanied by significant environmental problems. The countries of the region already constitute the largest import market for liquefied natural gas (LNG). The region has accounted for a progressively larger share of world primary energy use; its share has risen from under 19% in 1999 to over 25% in 2007.     

全球能源格局变化及对中国能源安全的挑战

进入21世纪以来,拉美和非洲的石油储产量大幅增长,石油供应向多极化方向发展,石油消费重心正在转向产油国和发展中国家.2000～2011年全球天然气产量增长了35.7％,北美和欧洲天然气探明储量增长居全球领先水平,天然气消费普遍增长.发达国家仍然是能源投资的主体,但同时发展中国家的能源投资也快速增长,发展中国家对煤炭和石油的投资比例均高于发达国家,而发达国家对天然气和电力等清洁能源的投资比例超过了发展中国家.欧美引领着新能源的发展,但由于中国和印度的拉动,亚洲地区有可能成为全球新能源中心.气候变化问题使能源安全的内涵扩展到对环境的影响.此外,中东的石油和天然气消费增速位居全球第一,未来可能会影响对其他地区的出口.世界能源格局的变化使中国能源安全面临一系列新的挑战.首先,作为全球最大的能源消费国,维护全球能源安全是中国的不二选择;其次,维护海外投资利益已成为中国构建新的国际关系的重要考量;第三,需要重新考虑与发达国家和发展中国家的能源外交;另外,如何在国际舞台上发挥主导作用、以何种政治姿态影响和参与全球能源治理,以及如何与周边国家及欧美等国解决能源争端、领土争端和贸易争端,是我国面临的又一挑战.中国要注重能源大国在能源安全中的作用,有区别地与具有不同能源安全利益诉求的国家开展能源外交,在全球能源对话中要积极倡导能源贸易“去政治化”,提出既有利于世界能源安全又有利于我国能源安全的新理念.     

The reform in the Turkish natural gas market: A critical evaluation

Turkey is in a strategically advantageous position in terms of its natural gas market. Being in the middle of Europe and energy-rich countries of Central Asia, it can be an energy corridor between these two regions. It can import gas from a number of countries and diversify its sources. This situation may also provide motivation for a competitive gas market. The recent reform in the market, which began in 2001, was an attempt to strengthen the natural gas market to this end. However, the reform has not worked out as expected so far. This article discusses recent restructuring efforts in the Turkish natural gas market. We focus on the legal structure and economic consequences of the legal change within the international economic relations. After presenting a detailed discussion of the legal framework, we draw attention to the problems of the industry and difficulties in the transition to a more competitive market structure. In the end, we touch upon some regulatory issues and potential conflicts.     

美国石油进口依存度和来源构成变化及启示

美国是位于世界前列的石油生产、消费和进口大国,其石油进口量和进口来源构成的变化对世界石油市场有重大影响。美国原油进口依存度在2000年达到63.67%,2003年进口量达到峰值后原油进口依存度也随之降低,2004~2008年为61%左右,2009年为57.53%。美国石油(原油加油品)进口的首要来源是北美自由贸易区的邻国加拿大和墨西哥,2009年两国占到美国石油进口的32.38%。从原油供应上可以说加拿大是美国后院的油库,即使墨西哥由于人为因素而在一段时间内产量有所减少,加拿大也会补上其对美出口的缺口。同年来自中南美洲、非洲和欧洲的进口量依次占20.48%、19.01%和6.41%。仅大西洋供销区就占到美国石油进口的78.28%。无论从地缘油气还是从经济政治乃至军事上看,大西洋供销区对美国的石油供应都是有发展潜力且相当稳定的。而2009年来自中东的石油仅占15.38%,且近年来呈下降趋势。按照目前的发展势头,近几年西非占美国的进口份额就可能超过中东。事实上,美国并不像外界公认的那样依赖中东石油。美国石油进口来源相对分散,在来源地区排序中越向前者距离美国本土越近,运输越便捷安全。在进口来源多元化和供应安全上中国和欧洲皆逊于美国。世界石油贸易的重点继续向东亚、南亚转移,美欧对石油进口的需求持续走低,将迫使中东以及非洲、南美的石油输出国向东亚、南亚地区开拓新的出口目的地。总体上看,世界石油贸易格局的深刻变化显然对中国的石油进口和经济发展是有利的。     

Assessing the energy vulnerability: Case of industrialised countries

The emergence of new big consumer countries on the energy markets and the perspective of oil and gas depletion at the end of the current century raise the concerns about fair distribution of the remaining resources for the common and sustainable well-being of the mankind. High volatility of energy prices discourages the investment and delays the energy technology transition. Voluntary measures are needed mainly in industrialised countries in order to develop alternative and sustainable energy sources, to enable technology transfer towards emerging and developing countries and to avoid struggle for energy procurement. In this paper, a composite index of energy demand/supply weaknesses is defined as a proxy of energy vulnerability. The proposed index is based on several indicators such as energy intensity, oil and gas import dependency, CO₂ content of primary energy supply, electricity supply weaknesses and non-diversity in transport fuels. The assessment of this composite index for selected industrialised countries is discussed as well as the sensitivity to various factors.     

近期我国能源供需形势及趋势展望

2007年上半年,在经济强劲增长的拉动下,能源需求以较快的速度增长,但在各种因素的共同作用下能源供需基本平衡。预计下半年能源生产和消费快速增长的势头难以转变,通过努力,供求依然可实现总体平衡,但节能减排、能源安全和气候变化压力巨大。为此,我们建议,继续加强宏观调控政策,抑制不合理的能源需求,使能源供应与环境协调发展;积极推进电力结构调整,利用价格的杠杆作用合理用电和节电;加强对煤炭行业的调控力度,保障其可持续发展;稳步推行天然气价格改革,促进我国天然气健康快速发展;通过进出口税收政策,合理配置和利用国内外能源资源。     

Identification of congestion and valuation of transport infrastructures in the European natural gas market

Rising import dependency, increasing market liberalization and cross-border trade and security of supply fears facilitate investments in natural gas supply infrastructures in Europe. In order to ensure an efficient allocation of capital resources, it is important to identify congestion in the existing system and investment requirements based on economic principles. This paper first outlines an analytical framework for the identification of bottlenecks and the evaluation of transport capacities and the cost of congestion based on nodal prices. Secondly, an infrastructure model of the European gas market with high temporal and spatial granularity which exhibits the characteristics of the theoretical model is introduced. Parameterizing the model with the existing infrastructure and applying a demand and supply scenario for the year 2015, congestion mark-ups between countries in Europe are estimated. This approach indicates potential bottlenecks which might arise within the next five years and quantifies their economic costs. With only some temporary congestion, physical market integration is found to be high in Western Europe. In Eastern Europe, severe bottlenecks are identified and discussed. Implications for efficient investment decisions arising from the findings are examined in the context of the theoretical considerations.     

Determinants of global natural gas consumption and import–export flows

Based on the data of the BP Statistical Review of World Energy, this paper constructs the consumption and import–export of natural gas identities. It discusses the drivers of changes in global natural gas consumption and trade flows from 2008 to 2015 using the extended logarithmic mean Divisia index. The results show that differences in the natural gas supply and demand across countries or regions, as well as the distribution of energy between the domestic and international markets, can be better explained when natural gas trade movements are considered. By comparing the supply and consumption increment of natural gas, this study finds that only the energy intensity, economic growth, and demographic effects are consistent with each other. The changes in the impact of other effects mainly depend on storage variations and statistical errors. In addition, the primary drivers of the incremental changes in natural gas consumption vary in different countries. They include production scale, import scale, export scale, consumption structure proportion, energy intensity, economic growth, and population and balance effects. Finally, the consumption competitiveness of the liquefied natural gas significantly improved over the examined period.     

A simulation approach for analysis of short-term security of natural gas supply in Colombia

Achieving security of gas supply implies diversifying gas sources, while having enough supply, transportation, and storage capacity to meet demand peaks and supply interruptions. Devising a strategy for securing gas supply is not straightforward because gas supply depends on complex interactions of production, demand and infrastructure, and it is exposed to economic, regulatory, political, environmental and technical risks. To address this complexity, we propose a simulation approach that replicates the structure of the gas supply chain, including transportation constraints and demand fluctuations. We build and calibrate a computer model for the Colombian gas sector, and run the model to assess the impact of expanding transportation capacity and increasing market flexibility on the security of supply. Our analysis focuses on the operation and planned and proposed expansions of the transportation infrastructure because adequate regulation and development of this infrastructure can contribute to increase the security of supply in the gas sector. We find that proposed import facilities, specifically LNG import terminals at Buenaventura, increase system's security under the current market structure.     

Energy access and security strategies in Small Island Developing States

Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) are isolated and surrounded by ocean. The generation and use of energy resources are two very important aspects for the development of SIDS. Unfortunately, most of SIDS do not use their potential in respect of energy resources, and they as a result have to depend on the import of fossil fuels in order to meet their energy needs. This increases the overall vulnerability of SIDS as they have to depend on the rising or fluctuating fossil fuels prices. Some SIDS, especially in the geographically dispersed Pacific region, do not have proper access to energy whereas other SIDS struggle more with energy security issue. At the same time, SIDS are most vulnerable to the impacts and effects of climate change, as they are among the ones to be most severely affected in case of natural calamities and sea-level rise.Drawing on experiences from Fiji and Mauritius, this paper explains core elements related to energy access and security in SIDS, contextualizes and discusses barriers and list some of the strategies that may be used to ensure access to and a continuous supply of energy in SIDS. A situational analysis of two SIDS outlines their current energy situation and compares their energy policies to globally accepted criteria for SIDS policies as well as with each other. It is claimed that the diverging energy performances of Fiji and Mauritius cannot be explained by policies differences. The reasons for the varying energy performances may therefore lie in the administrative and institutional mechanisms used by the two countries in implementing their energy policies. Finally, to enable SIDS to reduce their overall vulnerability and become truly sustainable islands, it is recommended to undertake careful assessments of the particular local contexts under which island energy regimes operate.     

Vulnerability to terrorist attacks in European electricity decarbonisation scenarios: Comparing renewable electricity imports to gas imports

The decarbonised future European electricity system must remain secure: reliable electricity supply is a prerequisite for the functioning of modern society. Scenarios like Desertec, which partially rely on solar power imports from the Middle East and North Africa, may be attractive for decarbonisation, but raise concerns about terrorists interrupting supply by attacking the long, unprotected transmission lines in the Sahara. In this paper, I develop new methods and assess the European vulnerability to terrorist attacks in the Desertec scenario. I compare this to the vulnerability of today's system and a decarbonisation scenario in which Europe relies on gas imports for electricity generation. I show that the vulnerability of both gas and electricity imports is low, but electricity imports are more vulnerable than gas imports, due to their technical characteristics. Gas outages (and, potentially, resulting blackouts) are the very unlikely consequence even of very high-number attacks against the gas import system, whereas short blackouts are the potential consequence of a few attacks against the import electricity lines. As the impacts of all except extreme attacks are limited, terrorists cannot attack energy infrastructure and cause spectacular, fear-creating outages. Both gas and electricity import infrastructure are thus unattractive and unlikely terrorist targets.     

能源安全政策的国际比较

国际能源新秩序正逐步形成,能源安全已成为世界各国国家安全的重要组成部分,本文结合国内外能源安全的研究,从能源政治、经济、技术等方面系统地论述了主要油气进口国家的能源安全政策,通过对能源外交、能源进口、石油战略储备等政策的比较分析,提出了对我国能源安全政策的几点启示。     

Electricity capacity expansion in Thailand: An analysis of gas dependence and fuel import reliance

Electricity generation in Thailand is highly dependant on natural gas. Recent research has revealed that the Thai economy would become more vulnerable from high gas dependence in the power sector. This paper aims to assess the economic impact of gas dependence in power generation in the coming decades. To fulfil this objective, two scenarios of electricity capacity planning were developed and the results were analysed to understand the changes in gas dependence and the effects on import reliance. It is found that from 2011 to 2025, the average cost of natural gas for power generation will account for 2.41% of gross domestic product (GDP) while high oil price in international energy markets would push this cost to 2.97% of GDP. In addition, reliance on fuel imports for power generation, particularly natural gas and coal, is going to be another crucial concern to the security of energy supply as the costs of these imports during the planning horizon will increase significantly at an average rate of 6.78% per year.     

An evaluation framework for oil import security based on the supply chain with a case study focused on China

The import risks confronting oil consumers are influenced by transport conditions, oil prices, geopolitics, etc. This paper constructs an evaluation framework for oil import security from a perspective of supply chain process, and builds a two-phase DEA-like model to evaluate oil import security. China is taken as an example to measure its oil import security during 1993–2011 and to identify the main risk factors in different periods. Results indicate that China's oil import risks have kept rising since 1993 and face multiple potential threats from each stage of oil import supply chain, among which the threat from external dependence has become the biggest challenge. Under different economic situations and changing energy environment, the risk factors affecting China's oil import security switched among different stages of the supply chain, showing a phase-transitioning characteristic from import over-dependence to increasing external supply pressure. The threat of external supply has become a new risk since the pressure of decreasing availability of external resource rose.     

European key issues concerning natural gas: Dependence and vulnerability

Due to the high demand for natural gas from emerging countries and because natural gas has become an increasingly valuable resource is electricity production, natural gas demand should increase. This paper re-examines the geopolitical key issues related to natural gas as well as the uneven distribution of natural gas resources on a worldwide scale. This paper proposes to define the significance of liquefied natural gas in gas exchanges and it analyses the problem of European gas vulnerability using several indicators.