Inequality in CO2 emissions across countries and its relationship with income inequality: A distributive approach

This paper analyzes the inequality in CO₂ emissions across countries (and groups of countries) and the relationship of this inequality with income inequality across countries for the period (1971–1999). The research employs the tools that are usually applied in income distribution analysis. The methodology used here gives qualitative and quantitative information on some of the features of the inequalities across countries that are considered most relevant for the design and discussion of policies aimed at mitigating climate change. The paper studies the relationship between CO₂ emissions and GDP and shows that income inequality across countries has been followed by an important inequality in the distribution of emissions. This inequality has diminished mildly, although the inequality in emissions across countries ordered in the increasing value of income (inequality between rich and poor countries) has diminished less than the “simple” inequality in emissions. Lastly, the paper shows that the inequality in CO₂ emissions is mostly explained by the inequality between groups with different per capita income level. The importance of the inequality within groups of similar per capita income is much lower and has diminished during the period, especially in the low middle income group.     

Decomposing international polarization of per capita CO2 emissions

The aim of this paper is to analyze the international polarization of per capita CO₂ emissions with exogenous groups based on the Z–K measure (Zhang and Kanbur, 2001), whose main differential advantage lies on its factor-decomposability. In particular, we propose to use the factor decomposition based on Kaya (1989) by applying the methodology suggested by Duro and Padilla (2006). The main empirical results derived can be summarized as follows. First, the international polarization of emissions has significantly decreased over time during the period 1971–2006, when regional sets of nations based on the IEA structure are used; secondly, this decrease can be almost exclusively based on the reduction of the average dissimilarities among sets of countries and not due to a within-group cohesion process. Lastly, this reduction can be mainly attributed to the role of the affluence factor, and to a lesser extent, to the energy intensities. Thus, and given the values achieved for the different components, it seems that further reductions in the international polarization will continue be based on the economic convergence among groups.     

Renewable energy for sustainable electrical energy system in India

Present trends of electrical energy supply and demand are not sustainable because of the huge gap between demand and supply in foreseeable future in India. The path towards sustainability is exploitation of energy conservation and aggressive use of renewable energy systems. Potential of renewable energy technologies that can be effectively harnessed would depend on future technology developments and breakthrough in cost reduction. This requires adequate policy guidelines and interventions in the Indian power sector. Detailed MARKAL simulations, for power sector in India, show that full exploitation of energy conservation potential and an aggressive implementation of renewable energy technologies lead to sustainable development. Coal and other fossil fuel (gas and oil) allocations stagnated after the year 2015 and remain constant up to 2040. After the year 2040, the requirement for coal and gas goes down and carbon emissions decrease steeply. By the year 2045, 25% electrical energy can be supplied by renewable energy and the CO₂ emissions can be reduced by 72% as compared to the base case scenario.     

Revisiting CO2 emissions convergence in G18 countries

This study revisits whether CO₂ emissions converge in G18 countries over the period of 1950–2013. To work on this empirical analysis, we employ a more powerful quantile unit root test with per capita CO₂ emissions. While conventional unit root tests fail to reject convergence in CO₂ emissions in these G18 countries, quantile unit root test results demonstrate CO₂ emissions converged in 5 of these G18 countries (i.e., Australia, Brazil, Canada, Germany, and India). Our empirical results have important policy implications for the governments of G18 countries to direct efficient and effective energy policies to reduce the CO₂ emissions.     

Carbon Dioxide Disposal via Carbonation

Abstract

Carbonation is a solidification/stabilization process. The availability of a carbon dioxide (CO₂) fixation technology would serve as insurance in case global warming causes severe restrictions on CO₂ emissions. In order to prevent rapid climate change, it will be necessary to stabilize CO₂ as carbonate by the carbonation process. Carbonation of the widely occurring mineral olivine (Mg₂SiO₄) converts CO₂ into an environmentally benign mineral magnesite (MgCO₃).     

Dynamic relationship between CO2 emissions,energy consumption and economic growth in three North African countries

This paper investigated the causal relationship between energy consumption (EC), carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and economic growth for three selected North African countries. It uses a panel co-integration analysis to determine this econometric relationship using data during 1980–2012. Recently developed tests for panel unit root and co-integration tests are applied. In order to test the Granger causality, a panel Vector Error Correction Model is used. The conservation hypothesis is found; the short run panel results show that there is a unidirectional relationship from economic growth to EC. In addition, there is a unidirectional causality running from economic growth to CO₂ emissions. A unidirectional relationship from EC to CO₂ emissions is detected. Findings shown that there is a big interdependence between EC and economic growth in the long run, which indicates the level of economic activity and EC mutually influence each other in that a high level of economic growth leads to a high level of EC and vice versa. Similarly, a unidirectional causal relationship from EC to CO₂ emissions is detected. This study opens up new insights for policy-makers to design comprehensive economic, energy and environmental policy to keep the economic green and a sustainable environment, implying that these three variables could play an important role in the adjustment process as the system changes from the long run equilibrium.     

The impact of lifestyle on energy use and CO2 emission: An empirical analysis of China's residents

Based on the application of a Consumer Lifestyle Approach (CLA), this paper quantifies the direct and indirect impact of lifestyle of urban and rural residents on China's energy use and the related CO₂ emissions during the period 1999–2002. The results show that approximately 26 per cent of total energy consumption and 30 per cent of CO₂ emission every year are a consequence of residents’ lifestyles, and the economic activities to support these demands. For urban residents the indirect impact on energy consumption is 2.44 times greater than the direct impact. Residence; home energy use; food; and education, cultural and recreation services are the most energy-intensive and carbon-emission-intensive activities. For rural residents, the direct impact on energy consumption is 1.86 times that of the indirect, and home energy use; food; education, and cultural recreation services; and personal travel are the most energy-intensive and carbon-emission-intensive activities. This paper provides quantitative evidence for energy conservation and environmental protection focused policies. China's security for energy supply is singled out as a serious issue for government policy-makers, and we suggest that government should harmonize the relationships between stakeholders to determine rational strategies.     

Decomposition analysis of CO2 emissions from passenger cars: The cases of Greece and Denmark

The paper presents a decomposition analysis of the changes in carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from passenger cars in Denmark and Greece, for the period 1990–2005. A time series analysis has been applied based on the logarithmic mean Divisia index I (LMDI I) methodology, which belongs to the wider family of index decomposition approaches. The particularity in road transport that justifies a profound analysis is its remarkably rapid growth during the last decades, followed by a respective increase in emissions. Denmark and Greece have been selected based on the challenging differences of specific socio-economic characteristics of these two small EU countries, as well as on the availability of detailed data used in the frame of the analysis. In both countries, passenger cars are responsible for half of the emissions from road transport as well as for their upward trend, which provokes the implementation of a decomposition analysis focusing exactly on this segment of road transport. The factors examined in the present decomposition analysis are related to vehicles ownership, fuel mix, annual mileage, engine capacity and technology of cars. The comparison of the results discloses the differences in the transportation profiles of the two countries and reveals how they affect the trend of CO₂ emissions.     

Energy and environmental potential of solid waste in Brazil

The economic progress and sustainable developments are linked to the optimization and energy conservation. Conventional methods of production and energy utilization usually embed harmful environmental impacts, and hence the challenge to scientists to seek for mechanisms of energy production and use which are less harmful or better still free of unfavorable environmental impacts. Studies point out that municipal solid waste has great energy potential and its reuse, specifically the production of biogas from landfills and the recycling of solid waste presents a favorable mechanism to optimize energy use and preserve it. The present investigation includes the energy savings and the avoided emissions of CO₂ to the atmosphere as a result of recycling and production of biogas from landfills in one metropolitan with more than one million inhabitants and in Brazil. The results show that the rate of CH₄ production from the Brazilian waste landfills can avail for Brazil about 41.7 MW and the reuse of recyclables can avail to the energy system an additional quantity of 286 GJ/month enough for the consumption of 318,000 families.     

Estimation,characteristics, and determinants of energy-related industrial CO2 emissions in Shanghai (China), 1994–2009

This paper estimates energy-related industrial CO₂ emissions (ICE) in Shanghai from 1994 to 2009 and summarizes ICE's characteristics. The results show that the coal-type consumption is the ICE's largest source of the entire industry and that the energy consumption structure of CO₂ emissions of the entire industry depends largely on that of six sub-sectors of high emission group, which contributes to most of ICE. Furthermore, the paper implements an econometric study on the ICE's determinants based on the ICE-STIRPAT model. The results indicate that the relationship between ICE and per capita output presents an inverted N-shaped curve with two turning points, resulting from the comprehensive influence of scale, composition, and technique effects, and that most sub-sectors remain in the second stage of the curve. Energy efficiency exerts a more efficient control over ICE than R&D intensity. ICE intensity is regulated more easily than ICE scale. In the long run, industrial growth and coal-type consumption play the most important roles in driving ICE, whereas energy efficiency exerts the most prominent effect on reducing it. The results of the robustness analysis indicate that the utilization of the ICE-STIRPAT model is valid and robust under the setting of environment impact control over ICE in Shanghai.     

A decomposition analysis of CO2 emissions from energy use: Turkish case

Environmental problems, especially “climate change” due to significant increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gases, have been on the agenda since 1980s. Among the greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide (CO₂) is the most important one and is responsible for more than 60% of the greenhouse effect. The objective of this study is to identify the factors that contribute to changes in CO₂ emissions for the Turkish economy by utilizing Log Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) method developed by Ang (2005) [Ang, B.W., 2005. The LMDI approach to decomposition analysis: a practical guide. Energy Policy 33, 867–871]. Turkish economy is divided into three aggregated sectors, namely agriculture, industry and services, and energy sources used by these sectors are aggregated into four groups: solid fuels, petroleum, natural gas and electricity. This study covers the period 1970–2006, which enables us to investigate the effects of different macroeconomic policies on carbon dioxide emissions through changes in shares of industries and use of different energy sources. Our analysis shows that the main component that determines the changes in CO₂ emissions of the Turkish economy is the economic activity. Even though important changes in the structure of the economy during 1970–2006 period are observed, structure effect is not a significant factor in changes in CO₂ emissions, however intensity effect is.     

Achieving 60% CO2 reductions within the UK energy system—Implications for the electricity generation sector

This paper explores how investment in the UK electricity generation sector can contribute to the UK goal of reducing CO₂ emissions with 60% by the year 2050 relative to the 1990 emissions. Considering likely development of the transportation sector and industry over the period, i.e. a continued demand growth and dependency on fossil fuels and electricity, the analysis shows that this implies CO₂ emission reductions of up to 90% by 2050 for the electricity sector. Emphasis is put on limitations imposed by the present system, described by a detailed database of existing power plants, together with meeting targets on renewable electricity generation (RES) including assumptions on gas acting as backup technology for intermittent RES. In particular, it is investigated to what extent new fossil fuelled and nuclear power is required to meet the year 2050 demand as specified by the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (RCEP). In addition, the number of sites required for centralized electricity generation (large power plants) is compared with the present number of sites. A simulation model was developed for the analysis. The model applies the UK national targets on RES, taken from Renewable Obligation (RO) for 2010 and 2020 and potentials given by RCEP for 2050, and assumed technical lifetimes of the power plants of the existing system and thus, links this system with targets for the years 2010, 2020 and 2050.     

Interactions and implications of renewable and climate change policy on UK energy scenarios

As a response to the twin challenges of climate change mitigation and energy security, the UK government has set a groundbreaking target of reducing the UK’s economy-wide carbon emissions by 80% from 1990 levels by 2050. A second key UK energy policy is to increase the share of final energy consumption from renewables sources to 15% by 2020, as part of the wider EU Renewable Directive. The UK’s principle mechanisms to meet this renewable target are the Renewable Obligation (RO) in the electricity sector, the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation (RTFO), and most recently the Renewable Heat Programme (RHP) for buildings. This study quantifies a range of policies, energy pathways, and sectoral trade-offs when combining mid- and long-term UK renewables and CO₂ reduction policies. Stringent renewable policies are the binding constraints through 2020. Furthermore, the interactions between RO, RTFO, and RHP policies drive trade-offs between low carbon electricity, bio-fuels, high efficiency natural gas, and demand reductions as well as resulting 2020 welfare costs. In the longer term, CO₂ reduction constraints drive the costs and characteristics of the UK energy system through 2050.     

Clean energy scenarios for Australia

Australia, a major producer and user of coal, has the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions in the industrialised world. This study investigates whether in theory such a ‘fossil-fuel dependent’ country could achieve a 50% reduction in CO₂ emissions from stationary energy by 2040, compared with its 2001 emissions. To do this scenarios are developed, using a combination of forecasting and backcasting methods, under conditions of continuing economic growth and a restriction to the use of existing commercial technologies with small improvements. The principal scenario achieves the above target by implementing on the demand-side a medium-level of efficient energy use and substantial solar hot water together with a supply side combination of mainly natural gas, bioenergy and wind power. In doing so the scenario also achieves a 78% reduction in CO₂ emissions from electricity. Within the large uncertainties in future prices, it is possible that the economic savings from efficient energy use could pay for all or a large part of the additional costs of renewable energy.     

On the baseline evolution of automobile fuel economy in Europe

‘Business as usual’ scenarios in long-term energy forecasts are crucial for scenario-based policy analyses. This article focuses on fuel economy of passenger cars and light trucks, a long-disputed issue with serious implications for worldwide energy use and CO₂ emissions. The current status in Europe is explained and future developments are analysed with the aid of historical data of the last three decades from the United States and Europe. As a result of this analysis, fuel economy values are proposed for use as assumptions in baseline energy/transport scenarios in the 15 ‘old’ European Union Member States. Proposed values are given for new gasoline and diesel cars and for the years 2010, 2020 and 2030. The increasing discrepancy between vehicle fuel consumption measured under test conditions and that in the real world is also considered. One main conclusion is that the European Commission's voluntary agreement with the automobile industry should not be assumed to fully achieve its target under baseline conditions, nor should it be regarded as a major stimulus for autonomous vehicle efficiency improvements after 2010. A second conclusion is that three very recent studies enjoying authority across the EU tend to be overly optimistic as regards the technical progress for conventional and alternative vehicle propulsion technologies under ‘business as usual’ conditions.     

Assessment of the impact of the European CO2 emissions trading scheme on the Portuguese chemical industry

This paper describes an assessment of the impact of the enforcement of the European carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions trading scheme on the Portuguese chemical industry, based on cost structure, CO₂ emissions, electricity consumption and allocated allowances data from a survey to four Portuguese representative units of the chemical industry sector, and considering scenarios that allow the estimation of increases on both direct and indirect production costs. These estimated cost increases were also compared with similar data from other European Industries, found in the references and with conclusions from simulation studies. Thus, it was possible to ascertain the impact of buying extra CO₂ emission permits, which could be considered as limited. It was also found that this impact is somewhat lower than the impacts for other industrial sectors.     

Oil consumption, CO2 emission and economic growth in MENA countries

This study examines the impact of oil consumption on the economic growth of the MENA countries during the period 1980–2009. The panel model is employed in this study. Based on the cointegration test results, it was found that CO₂ emission, and oil consumption has a long run relationship with economic growth. Moreover, there is also a bi-directional Granger causality between oil consumption, CO₂ emission and economic growth in both the short run and the long run. The results of this study show clearly that oil consumption plays an important role in the economic growth of the MENA countries.     

CO2 and pollutant emissions from passenger cars in China

In this paper, CO₂ and pollutant emissions of PCs in China from 2000 to 2005 were calculated based on a literature review and measured data. The future trends of PC emissions were also projected under three scenarios to explore the reduction potential of possible policy measures. Estimated baseline emissions of CO, HC, NO_x, PM₁₀ and CO₂ were respectively 3.16×10⁶, 5.14×10⁵, 3.56×10⁵, 0.83×10⁴ and 9.14×10⁷ tons for China’s PCs in 2005 with an uneven distribution among provinces. Under a no improvement (NI) scenario, PC emissions of CO, HC, NO_x, PM₁₀ and CO₂ in 2020 are respectively estimated to be 4.5, 2.5, 2.5, 7.9 and 8.0 times that of 2005. However, emissions other than CO₂ from PCs are estimated to decrease nearly 70% by 2020 compared to NI scenario mainly due to technological improvement linked to the vehicle emissions standards under a recent policy (RP) scenario. Fuel economy (FE) enhancement and the penetration of advanced propulsion/fuel systems could be co-benefit measures to control CO₂ and pollutant emissions for the mid and long terms. Significant variations were found in PC emission inventories between different studies primarily due to uncertainties in activity levels and/or emission factors (EF).     

Determinants of variation in household CO2 emissions between and within countries

Variation in household CO₂ emissions between and within countries may have important consequences for the equity dimension of climate policies. In this study we aim to identify some determinants of national household CO₂ emissions and their distribution across income groups. For that purpose, we quantify the CO₂ emissions of households in the Netherlands, UK, Sweden and Norway around the year 2000 by combining a hybrid approach of process analysis and input–output analysis with data on household expenditures. Our results show that average households in the Netherlands and the UK give rise to higher amounts of CO₂ emissions than households in Sweden and Norway. Moreover, CO₂ emission intensities of household consumption decrease with increasing income in the Netherlands and the UK, whereas they increase in Sweden and Norway. A comparison of the national results at the product level points out that country characteristics, like energy supply, population density and the availability of district heating, influence variation in household CO₂ emissions between and within countries.