Numerical simulation and sensitivity analyses of full-scale test embankment with reinforced lightweight geomaterials on soft Bangkok clay

A full-scale test embankment was constructed on soft Bangkok clay using rubber tire chip–sand mixture as a lightweight geomaterial reinforced with geogrid under working stress conditions. The facing of the embankment was made of segmental concrete blocks with rock filled gabion boxes as the facing to the sloping sides. This paper attempts to simulate the behavior of the full-scale test embankment using PLAXIS finite element 2D program by means of undrained analysis in the construction stage and thereafter consolidation analysis was performed during the service stage. The settlement predictions of the soft clay foundation mostly depended on the assumed thickness of the weathered crust and the OCR values of the soft clay layer. The predicted excess pore water pressures were sensitive to the OCR values of the soft clay layer. The lateral wall movements were overpredicted by the analysis due to the partially drained consolidation process at the early stage of the construction. The FEM computed geogrid movements were smaller than the observed field data due to the use of lightweight tire chips-sand backfill. The maximum tension line agreed reasonably well with the coherent gravity bilinear failure plane. The sensitivity analyses of settlements, excess pore water pressures, lateral wall movements, geogrid movements and tensions in geogrid were performed by varying the weathered crust thickness, the OCR values of soft clay, the permeability values of the soft clay and the interface coefficient of the geogrid. The settlements and the excess pore water pressures changed significantly when the OCR and the permeability values of soft clay were varied. The interface coefficient of the geogrid reinforcements affected the lateral wall movements, geogrid movements and tensions in the geogrids. The higher interface coefficient yielded less wall/geogrid movement and resulted in higher tensions in geogrids as expected. The results of analyses show that the FEM analysis using 2D plane strain conditions provided satisfactory predictions for the field performance.     

加筋形式对桩承式路堤工作性状影响的试验研究

对无加筋和采用不同加筋材料、加筋层数下桩承式路堤的工作性状进行了三维模型试验研究,侧重分析了桩土应力比、应力折减系数、填土中竖向应力分布、地基沉降等内容。结果表明加筋材料的设置有利于荷载向桩顶的转移,可有效减小沉降,但不同加筋形式下桩承式路堤的工作性状有所不同。使用单层或双层土工布时,路堤的荷载传递机理主要是填土的土拱效应和加筋材料的拉膜效应,但拉膜效应发挥相对较晚。使用双层格栅时,加筋材料与周围砂土形成半刚性平台。单层格栅的作用介于两者之间。试验结果与常规拉膜效应设计方法的对比表明,若假设荷载只由相邻桩间的加筋材料条带承担,计算的拉力将偏大,过于保守。     

Consolidation of soft clay foundation improved by geosynthetic-reinforced granular columns: Numerical evaluation

Soft clays are problematic soils as they present high compressibility and low shear strength. There are several methods for improving in situ conditions of soft clays. Based on the geotechnical problem's geometry and characteristics, the in situ conditions may require reinforcement to restrain instability and construction settlements. Granular columns reinforced by geosynthetic material are widely used to reduce settlements of embankments on soft clays. They also accelerate the consolidation rate by reducing the drainage path's length and increasing the foundation soil's bearing capacity. In this study, the performance of encased and layered granular columns in soft clay is investigated and discussed. The numerical results show the significance of geosynthetic stiffness and the column length on the embankment settlements. Furthermore, the results show that granular columns may play an important role in dissipating the excess pore water pressures and accelerating the consolidation settlements of embankments on soft clays.     

Displacements of column-supported embankments over soft clay after widening considering soil consolidation and column layout: Numerical analysis

The common challenges for constructing embankments on soft clay include low bearing capacity, large total and differential settlements, and slope instability. Different techniques have been adopted to improve soft clay, such as the use of foundation columns including stone columns, deep mixed columns, and vibro-concrete columns, etc. Due to increased traffic volume, column-supported embankments may be widened to accommodate the traffic capacity need. Adding a new embankment to an existing embankment generates additional stresses and deformations under not only the widened portion but also the existing embankment. Differential settlements between and within the existing embankment and the widened portion may cause pavement distresses. Limited research has been conducted so far to investigate widening of column-supported embankments. In this study, a two-dimensional finite difference numerical method was adopted. This numerical method was first verified against field data and then used for the analysis of widened column-supported embankments over soft clay. The modified Cam-Clay model was used to model the soil under the existing embankment and the widened portion. Mechanically and hydraulically coupled numerical models were created to consider the consolidation of the foundation soil under the existing embankment and the widened portion. Different layouts of foundation columns under the existing embankment and the widened portion were investigated. The numerical results presented in this paper include the vertical and horizontal displacements, the maximum settlements, the transverse gradient changes, and the stress concentration ratios, which depended on column spacing. The columns installed under the connection side slope were most effective in reducing the total and differential settlements, horizontal displacement, and transverse gradient change of the widened embankment.     

Mehrlagig mit Geogittern bewehrte Erdkörper über pfahlartigen Gründungselementen – Numerische Simulation des Verformungsverhaltens unter statischer und zyklischer Einwirkung

Numerical simulation of the deformation behaviour of multi‐layered geogrid‐reinforced embankments on pile foundations under static and cyclic loading. Embankments for traffic constructions above soft soil are often founded on piles and geogrids are inserted at the bottom of the embankment. In the framework of present design procedures the cyclic (dynamic) traffic loads are considered in a very simplified manner. They are replaced by a static load with a magnification factor. The established model perception for static loading is a redistribution of stress due to arches in the embankment and tensile stress in the geogrids. However it has to be expected that the load bearing and deformation behaviour of such soil structures will change during the life time of the structure (millions of cycles). The cycles cause an accumulation of deformations and changes of stresses in the soil. This may cause a large destruction of the arches and may lead to unexpected settlements. Numerical strategies and constitutive models for the investigation of the behaviour of soils under high‐cyclic loading using finite element method were recently developed. This paper presents the results of such calculations of multi‐layered geogrid‐reinforced embankments on soft soil for the 2D case. The results show that, depending on the position of the geogrids in the embankment, their contribution is unequally to the bearing behaviour and that the stress arches will actually be destroyed under cyclic loading.     

A reinforcing method for steep clay slopes using a non-woven geotextile

The effect of non-woven geotextile reinforcement on the stability and deformation of two clay test embankments is examined based on their performance for about 3 years for the first embankment and about years for the other. Horizontal planar sheets of a non-woven geotextile are expected to work in three ways: for compaction control; for drainage; for tensile reinforcement. The degree of stability of the steep slopes of the test embankments decreased during heavy rainfall. It is found that the use of non-woven geotextile reinforcement may effectively improve embankment performance. Only the stability analysis in terms of effective stresses can explain the performance of the test embankments. The horizontal creep deformation of the embankments during 2–3 years, which is partly attributed to the creep deformation of the non-woven geotextile, was found to be small. The results of both laboratory bearing capacity tests of a strip footing on a model sand ground reinforced with the non-woven geotextile and plane strain compression tests on sand specimens reinforced with the non-woven geotextile show that the non-woven geotextile gives tensile reinforcement to soils.     

Use of ‘Limited Life Geotextiles’ (LLGs) for basal reinforcement of embankments built on soft clay

Polymeric technical fabrics have long working lives and are sometimes used in practical situations where a geosynthetic is only needed to be fully functional for a relatively short period of time, e.g. a separator layer beneath a temporary access road. This article concerns the use of ‘Limited Life Geotextiles’ (LLGs), i.e. high specification geotextiles, which are designed on the basis of having a limited working life, as basal reinforcement for an embankment built on soft clay. A method is given for defining the allowable progressive loss of tensile strength of the foregoing basal LLG as a result of improvement of the shear strength of the foundation soil due to consolidation. It is shown that the derived relation between required reinforcement strength and consolidation time (the Time-Strength-Envelope) can be represented by a simple exponential equation. Vegetable fibres are natural candidates for use in the manufacture of LLGs since they are a renewable resource and their degradation with time is accounted for in the design of the LLG. Combinations of vegetable fibres growing in tropical regions which are capable of satisfying the Time-Strength-Envelopes for several embankment slopes are presented.     

软弱滩涂上堤基细砂垫层的适用性研究

 结合浙江省平湖市白沙湾—水口围涂一期工程实例及相应原位监测成果,从堤坝工程对砂垫层的渗透性能需求着手,探讨土工织物加筋和细砂垫层应用于软弱滩涂海堤工程的可行性。数值分析结果表明,基于对固结、变形和稳定的综合考虑,在实际选择砂源时,作为水平排水体的砂垫层渗透系数最好大于5×10－3 cm/s;土工加筋对堤基的沉降和孔压影响不大,对提高堤基的整体稳定性作用显著。当细砂垫层由于渗透系数不满足稳定要求时可采用土工织物加筋。实践结果表明,对于场地附近区域缺乏碎石料而砂源充足的软弱滩涂上的堤防工程,采用细砂作为水平排水垫层兼以土工织物加筋是可行的,所得结论和规律可为类似工程提供理论支持,并指导设计和施工。     

软基上加筋防波堤的离心模型试验

通过离心模型试验，研究在有无土工织物加筋垫层条件下防波堤和软基的变形性状，得到了地基沉降、隆起及水平位移的分布规律。提出了一种量测筋材张力的新方法，对土工织物在离心试验过程中的应力状态进行了测试。研究结果表明：土工织物加筋垫层能有效地减小地基的侧向位移，有一定的加筋效果：土工织物张力的发挥水平与堤坝的沉降量密切相关，工作状态下其最大强度发挥水平约为52％。     

模拟堤坝荷载作用下软土的速率效应特性(英文)

用基于Perzyna超应力理论与修正剑桥模型的简单的弹黏塑性本构模型,耦合比奥固结理论,来模拟堤坝荷载作用下的软土的速率效应特性。以土工织布加固的堤坝为实例,提出从最初几个加载阶段下的沉降数据来确定黏性参数的反分析法。根据反分析的参数值来模拟,同实测值予以比较,并同文献中使用其他四个不同本构模型的模拟结果进行比较,比较研究表明:本文建议的模型具有优越性。特别研究了土工织布加固对堤坝下软土的滞后变形和稳定性的影响。良好的模拟结果反应了所提出的反分析法的可用性,同时展示了所使用的弹黏塑性本构模型在岩土工程中的实用性:弥补了修正剑桥模型不能模拟速率效应特性的缺点;跟其他黏塑性本构模型比较,本模型参数确定方法简单,模拟结果准确。     

软土地基加筋石灰土路堤离心模型试验数值模拟

 建立以离心试验几何尺寸的有限元数值模型,模拟变加速度加载下软土地基加筋石灰土路堤中的位移、土压力、孔隙水压力和加筋拉力随时间的变化规律,并与离心模型试验结果进行比较;同时,采用该数值模型计算了不加筋、加1,2层筋时路堤和地基位移情况。计算结果表明,加筋路堤沉降量、土压力、孔隙水压力和加筋拉力的计算值与离心试验实测值吻合很好或基本一致,表明该数值模型是合理的;不加筋路堤的中心沉降量和坡脚下地基水平位移比加1层筋时明显大一些,两者在加速度为100.0 g时地面坡脚处的水平位移差值达近2 mm,而加2层筋时位移与加1层筋接近。     

高填方加筋新旧路堤现场试验与数值模拟分析

 结合山区高速公路拓宽工程,对土工格室处治高填方新旧路堤进行现场试验,分析加宽高填方路堤侧向位移、沉降及土压力变化规律,研究格室处治效果。在现场试验的基础上,采用三维薄膜单元模拟土工格室的立体加筋性能,建立三维弹塑性模型,分析土工格室受力特点,通过对相关参数的敏感性分析,揭示高填方加宽路堤的变形规律。结果表明,采用三维薄膜单元,能较好地反映土工格室处治现场高填方新旧路堤的规律。与现场试验相比,利用数值试验不仅能得到现场的加筋效果,而且还能通过分析筋材与填料参数的变化和筋材铺设间距来研究格室处治高填方路堤的规律,从而可进一步探讨格室加筋的机制。高填方路堤在加宽路基自重荷载作用下沉降主要集中在加宽路堤的中上部,侧向位移从路基顶面到底部依次逐渐减少。土工格室所在层位起到扩散荷载、减少侧向变形和不均匀沉降的作用。填料与筋材模量愈高,加筋间距愈小,加筋效果愈好,较为合理的铺设间距为2～3 m。该研究成果对高填方路堤加筋处理和新旧路基结合部处理均有借鉴意义。     

3D coupled mechanical and hydraulic modeling of a geosynthetic-reinforced deep mixed column-supported embankment

Numerical studies were conducted to improve the understanding of the behavior of geosynthetic-reinforced column-supported embankments. Due to the complexity of the problem, so far, consolidation process and three-dimensional patterns of columns have not been well simulated in most published numerical studies. As a result, the time-dependant behavior and the serviceability of this system have not been well evaluated. In this study, a three-dimensional coupled mechanical and hydraulic modeling was conducted using FLAC3D to consider consolidation and three-dimensional arrangement of columns. This study was based on a well-documented bridge approach embankment reinforced by a layer of geotextile and supported by deep mixed (DM) columns. The foundation soils including soft clay and silt, the embankment fill, and the deep mixed columns were modeled as linearly elastic-perfectly plastic materials with Mohr–Coulomb failure criteria. The geotextile reinforcement was simulated by geogrid elements incorporated in the FLAC3D software, which can sustain in-plane tensile force only. The staged construction was simulated by building the embankment in lifts. The duration of each lift was the same as the actual construction time plus the lapse time between two consecutive stages. The development of settlement and tension in the geotextile with time is compared with the long-term monitoring data and yields good agreement. The generation and dissipation of excess pore water pressure during and after construction are presented and discussed.     

刚性桩加固高速公路软基土拱效应现场试验研究及其与解析解的比较

用刚性桩处理高速公路软基能减小路堤沉降,提高路堤稳定性,缩短工期。土拱对路堤的承载变形性状有重要影响,到目前为止,对路堤中土拱效应的研究还不深入。本文结合某高速公路刚性桩处理软基试验段,实测了路堤填筑过程中及填筑结束后一段时间内桩帽、桩间土土压力及相应的沉降,分析了桩土沉降差、路堤高度、桩间距、桩帽大小等因素对土拱效应的影响,并与现有的几种土拱效应计算方法进行了比较。结果表明:①土拱效应的发挥程度与桩土沉降差密切相关;②当路堤较高,桩间距较小,桩帽较大时,桩体荷载分担比较大;③根据Hewlett&Randolph及陈云敏改进的土拱效应计算方法所得到的桩体荷载分担比与实测结果比较接近。     

Centrifuge modeling of a geogrid-reinforced embankment with lime-stabilized soil as backfill on soft soil

A centrifugal model test was performed to investigate the behavior of a geogrid-reinforced embankment on a 20 m thick soft silty clay subsoil. The lime-stabilized soil embankment was 4 m high, 26 m wide with slopes of 1:1.5 and included sand wick drains. Displacements, earth pressures and pore water pressures were measured during the test. Test results showed settlement on the front face of the foundation was approximately 90% of that measured by displacement sensors; the elastic displacement was approximately 11% of the total displacement; and the reinforced embankment remained serviceable despite a 300 mm wide crack on the embankment surface and up to 1.73 m settlement at the centerline of the embankment.     

基于沉降控制的高路堤涵洞纵向调荷技术

为解决高路堤涵洞纵向不均匀沉降所带来的病害问题,基于纵向沉降控制的高路堤涵洞调荷机理,利用有限元软件研究涵洞填土与地基土特性以及不同EPS板参数对涵顶垂直土压力和涵底土体沉降的影响,通过离心模型试验探讨涵洞纵向铺设EPS板对高路堤及涵洞的沉降的影响。通过数值模拟计算,分析不同EPS板模量、铺设范围、厚度以及地基处理范围对高路堤涵洞纵向沉降差减少率的影响。研究结果表明:①填土模量与泊松比对涵顶垂直土压力及涵底土体沉降的影响不显著;②随着地基土模量与泊松比的增加,涵底土体纵向沉降趋于均匀分布;③数值仿真与离心模型试验成果得出,沿涵洞纵向分层铺设EPS板时,涵洞纵向调荷效果最佳;④通过数值模拟计算得到了基于纵向沉降控制的高路堤涵洞调荷设计计算方法。     

Experimental study on the load bearing behavior of geosynthetic reinforced soil bridge abutments on yielding foundation

This paper presents an experimental study of the load bearing behavior of geosynthetic reinforced soil (GRS) bridge abutments constructed on yielding clay foundation. The effects of two different ground improvement methods for the yielding clay foundation, including reinforced soil foundation and stone column foundation, were evaluated. The clay foundation was prepared using kaolin and consolidated to reach desired shear strength. The 1/5-scale GRS abutment models with a height of 0.8 m were constructed using sand backfill, geogrid reinforcement, and modular block facing. For the GRS abutments on three different yielding foundations, the reinforced soil zone had relatively uniform settlement and behaved like a composite due to the higher stiffness than the foundation layers. The wall facing moved outward with significant movements near the bottom of facing, and the foundation soil in front of facing showed obvious uplifting movements. The vertical stresses transferred from the footing load within the GRS abutment and on the foundation soil are higher for stiffer foundation. The improvement of foundation soil using geosynthetic reinforced soil and stone columns could reduce the deformations of GRS abutments on yielding foundation. Results from this study provide insights on the practical applications of GRS abutments on yielding foundation.     

单层立体加筋砂土性状的三轴试验研究

针对加筋土中传统的筋材布置特点,提出了立体加筋土的概念,并设计了采用轴对称布置的单层立体加筋砂土的试验方案,进行了48组镀锌铁皮和橡胶板两种筋材的单层立体加筋砂土的室内三轴试验,探讨了不同立体加筋方式、不同围压作用下应力–应变及强度变化规律。通过试验结果对比,分析了立体加筋砂土同传统水平加筋砂土之间应力–应变关系和强度指标的差异规律,竖向筋高度对立体加筋砂土的强度影响,单侧和双侧布置竖向筋材等两种布筋方式对立体加筋砂土强度的影响,以及不同变形模量的加筋材料对立体加筋土强度的影响。试验结果表明:立体加筋砂土的强度随竖向筋的高度增加而增大;立体加筋不仅能提高砂土的粘聚力,同时也能增加砂土的内摩擦角,尤其是双侧立体加筋砂土;在竖向筋总高度相同时,双侧立体加筋形式比单侧立体加筋能更有效提高砂土的强度。     

循环荷载作用下格栅防护柔性埋地管道的性能分析

交通循环荷载下埋地管道性能与防护是当前研究的重点问题,首先针对格栅加筋柔性管道开展试验研究,分析管道埋深H为3D(D为管道外径)时循环荷载水平和频率、首层格栅埋深、长度、层间距和筋材层数对管道力学与变形性能的影响,试验结果表明:首层格栅最佳埋深u为0.4B(B为加载板宽度),最佳层间距ug为0.5B,最佳铺设长度L为5D;增加格栅层数能显著增强土体,从而有效减少管道变形和加载板沉降;提高荷载水平或降低荷载频率使管道变形、加载板沉降和格栅应变整体显著增加;格栅应变随其与加载板中心的距离增加而减小,格栅中心点应变随循环次数增加呈现先增加后减少的趋势。进而,基于有限元数值模拟分析管道埋深H、加载板宽度B和管径D对管道力学性能的影响,数值结果表明增加管道埋深或减小加载板宽度,管道径向变形减小;同等荷载作用下,减小管径时管道径向变形增大,筋材加筋效果减弱,适当增加管道直径,有利于筋材加筋作用的充分发挥,从而减小管道径向变形。