Academic self-concept, achievement expectations, and locus of control in elementary learning disabled children.

Investigated affective development in 81 learning disabled (LD) and 81 normally achieving 3rd–6th graders. The Students' Perception of Ability Scale and the Projected Academic Performance Scale were used to assess academic self-concept and future achievement expectations, respectively. Academic locus of control was assessed by the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire. Strong differences were observed between LD and control Ss on the 3 affective variables. The importance of positive affective development in LD children is discussed. (French abstract) (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning disabilities, locus of control, and mother attitudes.

Academic locus of control and mothers' school-related reactions and expectations were studied in 81 learning disabled (LD) and 81 normally achieving (control) children in Grades 3–6. The Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire, the Intellectual subscale of the Parent Reaction Questionnaire, and the Parents Version of the Projected Academic Performance Scale were used. LD Ss indicated more external perceptions of control with respect to successful academic experiences. For failure outcomes, no difference between LD and control Ss was found; however, a trend toward increased internality was noted over grade levels for both groups. Mothers of LD Ss reported more negative and fewer positive reactions to their children. They also held lower academic performance expectations for their children than control mothers. Results are discussed in terms of the need to develop more internal control perceptions in LD children and the role of parental attitudes and expectations in school learning. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early reading-related skills and performance, reading self-concept, and the development of academic self-concept: A longitudinal study.

Relations between academic self-concept (ASC) and measures of reading-related performance and self-concept were examined in 60 beginning school children who, after 2 years of schooling, were assessed as having positive, negative, or typical ASCs. Data were collected soon after school entry, toward the end of Years 1 and 2, and during the middle of Year 3. Children with negative ASCs performed poorly on reading-related tasks and reported more negative reading self-concepts than did children with positive or typical ASCs. Reading was also highly predictive of negative and positive ASC group membership, but not of typical ASC group membership. Past studies of relations between ASC and achievement involving full-range samples of young children have underestimated the point in time when these factors become causally related to each other. The negative consequences of young children developing patterns of difficulty in learning to read are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-concept and peer acceptance in students with learning disabilities: A four- to five-year prospective study.

Examined the peer relations and self-concepts of students prior to and following their identification by the school district as learning disabled (LD) in a 4- to 5-yr prospective study. Self-concept ratings (kindergarten–4th grade) and peer acceptance ratings (kindergarten–3rd grade), as well as academic achievement scores, were compared across 3 groups: LD students who were placed in resource special education programs during 2nd grade, low-achieving (LA) students, and average-achieving/high-achieving (AA/HA) students. For peer acceptance, AA/HA students' scores were higher than LA students' scores only. No between-groups differences were obtained during any school year on the self-concept measure. Findings suggest that LD students' self-perceptions are not negatively affected by academic and social difficulties in the early grades or by the identification and labeling process. Though generalization is limited by the small sample size, few studies have examined students with learning disabilities longitudinally or prior to and following their identification. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affective variables and school achievement: A study of possible causal influences.

Studied the predictive and causal relationship of affective variables and academic achievement (376 Ss in Grades 3–6), both concurrently and 1 yr later. Affective characteristics studied were general and academic self-concept, academic locus of control, and expectations for future academic achievement (Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, Student's Perception of Ability Scale, Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire, and the Projected Academic Performance Scale) whereas levels of achievement were ascertained by end-of-year grades. The findings indicate that affective variables, especially academic self-concept, made a small but significant contribution to school grades. The data suggest a possible reciprocal interaction between affective characteristics and school achievement. Implications for children experiencing learning difficulties are discussed. (French abstract) (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of inclusion on the social functioning of students with learning disabilities

The purpose of this study was to provide data on the social functioning (i.e., the degree of peer acceptance, self-concept, loneliness, and social alienation) of students in second, third, and fourth grade who participated in an inclusive classroom for an entire year. The social functioning of students identified as learning disabled (LD; n = 16), low achieving (LA; n = 27), and average/high achieving (AHA; n = 21) was assessed at the beginning and end of the school year. The students with LD were less well liked and more frequently rejected than AHA students. Although students' overall self-worth did not differ by achievement group, the students with LD demonstrated significantly lower academic self-concept scores. The students with LD did not differ on ratings of loneliness, and they demonstrated increases in the number of within-class reciprocal friendships from fall to spring. Discussion focuses on the effects of inclusion on the social functioning of students with LD.     

Attributions of learning disabled children.

Two studies compared learning disabled (LD) and normally achieving (NA) children's attribution patterns of success and failure in achievement and in social situations. In Study 1, 37 LD and 67 NA 7th and 8th graders were interviewed about attributions for hypothetical success–failure situations. 75 LD and 30 NA Ss (aged 9–17 yrs) from private schools were interviewed about attributions for real-life ratings of success in Study 2. NA Ss in both studies followed the expected pattern of attributing success more internally and failure (or less success) more externally. LD Ss attributed success to internal factors as well, but in both studies they also externalized success more than did the NA Ss. In their attributions for failure (or less success), the LD Ss in both studies did not follow the expected pattern. It is concluded that attributional differences between the LD Ss may reflect differences in self-esteem, expectations, and uncertainty. Careful reconsideration of the potentially negative consequences of attributional retraining of children with learning problems is recommended. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal multilevel models of the big-fish-little-pond effect on academic self-concept: Counterbalancing contrast and reflected-glory effects in Hong Kong schools.

Longitudinal multilevel path models (7,997 students, 44 high schools, 4 years) evaluated effects of school-average achievement and perceived school status on academic self-concept in Hong Kong, which has a collectivist culture with a highly achievement-segregated high school system. Consistent with a priori predictions based on the big-fish-little-pond effect (BFLPE), higher school-average achievements led to lower academic self-concepts (contrast effect), whereas higher perceived school status had a counterbalancing positive effect on self-concept (reflected-glory, assimilation effect). The negative BFLPE is the net effect of counterbalancing influences, stronger negative contrast effects, and weaker positive assimilation effects so that controlling perceived school status led to purer—and even more negative— contrast effects. Attending a school where school-average achievement is high simultaneously resulted in a more demanding basis of comparison for one's own accomplishments (the stronger negative contrast effect) and a source of pride (the weaker positive assimilation effect), (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validation of language subtypes in learning disabled children.

Hypothesized that children characterized by deficits in narrative skills, relative to other language skills (e.g., syntactic and semantic), would be most at risk for general academic problems, especially in reading comprehension. Using data from a previous longitudinal study by the 1st author and J. D. McKinney (see record 1985-02522-001), different subtypes of language disability were identified in 63 6- and 7-yr-old learning disabled (LD) children. Comparison data had been obtained from 66 non-LD children matched to the LD sample on age, race, and sex. Results, obtained with hierarchical cluster analysis, indicate that 6 language subtypes were derived and that these were both internally consistent and externally valid, being differentially linked to reading and math achievement over a 3-yr period. Narrative ability was shown to be relatively important in predicting academic outcomes. The 3 subtypes showing the poorest academic outcomes had the highest relative scores in syntax and semantics. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Big-Fish--Little-Pond effect on academic self-concept: A cross-cultural (26-country) test of the negative effects of academically selective schools.

Academically selective schools are intended to affect academic self-concept positively, but theoretical and empirical research demonstrates that the effects are negative. The big-fish--little-pond effect (BFLPE), an application of social comparison theory to educational settings, posits that a student will have a lower academic self-concept in an academically selective school than in a nonselective school. This study, the largest cross-cultural study of the BFLPE ever undertaken, tested theoretical predictions for nationally representative samples of approximately 4,000 15-year-olds from each of 26 countries (N=103,558) who completed the same self-concept instrument and achievement tests. Consistent with the BFLPE, the effects of school-average achievement were negative in all 26 countries (M beta=-.20, SD=.08), demonstrating the BFLPE's cross-cultural generalizability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influences of internal and external frames of reference on the formation of math and English self-concepts.

In a large nationally representative sample (N?=?14,825 students, 1,015 high schools) math and English self-concepts were: (a) uncorrelated despite a substantial correlation between math and English test scores; (b) influenced by internal and external frames of reference; and (c) negatively affected by school-average achievement. As posited by the internal/external frame-of-reference model, better math skills led to much higher math self-concepts but slightly lower English self-concepts, whereas better English skills led to much higher English self-concepts but slightly lower math self-concepts. School-average achievement negatively affected academic self-concept; equally able students had higher academic self-concepts in schools with lower school-average achievements. This school context effect was also content specific; school-average math achievement negatively affected only math self-concept, and school-average English achievement negatively affected only English self-concept. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer Academic Reputation in Elementary School: Associations With Changes in Self-Concept and Academic Skills.

The developmental significance of children's academic reputation among peers was examined in a longitudinal study of 400 children in Grades 3, 4, and 5. In the fall of Year 1, teachers rated children's academic skills and behavior, and peers provided nominations describing classmates' academic skills, social acceptance versus rejection, and aggressive behavior. In the fall and spring of Year 1, children provided reports of their academic self-concept, social self-concept, and global self-worth. In the fall of Year 2, teachers rated children's academic skills. Results indicated that 4 items assessing peer academic reputation formed an internally consistent scale that was correlated moderately and distinctively with teacher-rated academic skills. Peer academic reputation and teacher-rated academic skills each contributed independently to the prediction of fall-to-spring changes in children's academic self-concept. Peer academic reputation and academic self-concept contributed uniquely to the prediction of changes in teacher-rated academic effort and skills over a 1-year period. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Socioemotional disturbances of learning disabled children.

A review of research on the relation between socioemotional functioning/disturbance and learning disabilities in children suggests that (a) although some learning disabled (LD) children suffer from socioemotional disturbance (SED), most do not; (b) there is no single, unitary pattern of emotional disturbance or social incompetence displayed by LD children; (c) the types of SED exhibited by LD children may be more frequent in such children than in their normally achieving age mates; (d) one pattern of central processing abilities and deficits appears to lead both to a particular configuration of academic achievement and to a particular form of SED, whereas other patterns do not; (e) psychopathology worsens in children with nonverbal learning disabilities; and (f) the methodologies and model developments designed to illuminate the relation between learning disabilities and SED must encompass the heterogeneity of the subtypal presentations evident in each. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Within-school social comparison: How students perceive the standing of their class predicts academic self-concept.

Results from prior research indicate that a student’s academic self-concept is negatively influenced by the achievement of others in his or her school (a frame of reference effect) and that this negative frame of reference effect is not or only slightly reduced by the quality, standing, or prestige of the track or school attended (a “reflected glory” effect). Going beyond prior studies, the present research used both between-school and within-school approaches to investigate frame of reference and reflected glory effects in education, incorporating students’ own perceptions of the standing of their school and class. Multilevel analyses were performed with data from 3 large-scale assessments with 4,810, 1,502, and 4,247 students, respectively. Findings from all 3 studies showed that, given comparable individual achievement, placement in high-achieving learning groups was associated with comparatively low academic self-concepts. However, students’ academic self-concept was not merely a reflection of their relative position within the class but also substantively associated with their individual and shared perceptions of the class’s standing. Moreover, the negative effects of being placed in high-achieving learning groups were weaker for high-achieving students. Overall, the studies support both educational and social psychology theorizing on social comparison. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning disabilities, low achievement, and mild mental retardation: more alike than different?

Children identified with learning disabilities (LD), low achievement (LA), or mild mental retardation (MMR) were contrasted on 41 measures of ability, academic achievement, social skills, problem behavior, academic engaged time, perceptual-motor skills, and school history. Both multivariate, univariate, and meta-analytic comparisons among the three groups showed relatively large differences on measures of aptitude and achievement, with the LD group scoring higher on measures of cognitive ability than the LA and MMR groups and the LA group showing higher tested academic achievement than the LD and MMR groups. Teacher ratings of academic competence showed similar levels of functioning for the LD and LA groups. No differences among the groups were found on measures of social skills, problem behaviors, or academic engaged time, or on most indices reflecting school history. Results were interpreted in light of studies contrasting LD and LA groups. Comparisons with earlier studies were difficult in light of demographic differences in samples and the lower cognitive and academic functioning of children in the present study. The current study showed that 61% of the LD group could be differentiated from the LA group, with LD-MMR and LA-MMR differentiation levels being 68.5% and 67.5%, respectively.     

Investigating the academic achievement of adolescents with learning disabilities: A structural modeling approach.

Although academic performance is a primary component of the federal definition of learning disabilities (LD), there have been few investigations of factors that influence academic growth among adolescents with LD. The focus of the present study is parental attitudes, their effects on adolescents with and without LD and on the academic achievement of those students. The estimated model accounted for 72% and 74% of the variance in academic achievement for the groups of students with and without LD, respectively. The findings support the position that parental expectations and perceptions of parental expectations are instrumental in raising the academic expectations and the achievement of adolescents with and without LD. The comparison between the students with and without LD showed that the most important factors were the same for both groups, suggesting the model worked in the same way for the two populations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early identification of learning disabilities: A comparison of two methods.

Computed discrepancy scores (multiple regression equations using IQs from the Slosson Intelligence Test, SES, sex, and age of child to predict reading and math achievement raw scores) and an unadjusted low-achievement criterion (discrepancy between achievement and potential) for 218 1st graders from normal classrooms in 6 rural elementary schools. In addition to determining the predictor variables already mentioned, the authors also administered the Behavior Problem Checklist, the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test for Children, the Visual Matching subtest of the Metropolitan Readiness Test, Level I—Form P, the Wepman Auditory Discrimination Test, and measures of audio-visual integration, handedness, finger localization, finger tapping, lateral dominance, letter and number recognition, motor coordination, name writing, and quantitative concepts. A rating of academic performance was obtained from each teacher. Data show that unadjusted low-achievement criteria misidentified as learning disabled (LD) a significant number of Ss who were achieving at levels commensurate with overall abilities, while failing to identify a significant number of truly LD children. Many of the variables that significantly discriminated low achievers from high achievers did not significantly discriminate LD from non-LD children. (68 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The longitudinal relations of teacher expectations to achievement in the early school years.

There is relatively little research on the role of teacher expectations in the early school years or the importance of teacher expectations as a predictor of future academic achievement. The current study investigated these issues in the reading and mathematic domains for young children. Data from nearly 1,000 children and families at 1st, 3rd, and 5th grades were included. Child sex and social skills emerged as consistent predictors of teacher expectations of reading and, to a lesser extent, math ability. In predicting actual future academic achievement, results showed that teacher expectations were differentially related to achievement in reading and math. There was no evidence that teacher expectations accumulate but some evidence that they remain durable over time for math achievement. In addition, teacher expectations were more strongly related to later achievement for groups of children who might be considered to be at risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychoeducational decision making: Reason for referral versus test data.

60 school and clinical psychologists (mean age 37.6 yrs) participated in a diagnostic simulation designed to investigate the effects of reason for referral (learning vs behavioral problem) and assessment data (learning disabled vs normal) on special education decision making. The type of referral problem did not influence the Ss' decisions; however, the nature of the assessment data had a significant impact. School psychologists who received data from normal children were less likely to hold low future academic expectations, to diagnose the child as handicapped, or to recommend a special education program. Psychologists in both groups were reluctant to label the case study child as handicapped and to recommend special class placement. Ss made decisions reflecting a least restrictive environment perspective, one that is consistent with the intent of current special education legislation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)