Memorability as a measure of processing: A unit analysis of prose and list learning.

Presented the same set of unrelated words to 13 different groups of Ss under 13 different conditions to show the effects of another dependent variable in memory studies. Included were intentional free-recall tasks, incidental free recall following lexical decision, and incidental free recall following ratings of orthographic distinctiveness and emotionality. Probability of recall was similar among tasks. Imagery encoding and recognition produced relative probabilities of recall that were different from each other and from free recall. Similar results were then obtained with a prose passage: A story was learned by 13 groups of Ss under 13 conditions. Eight free-recall tasks, which varied with respect to incidental or intentional learning, retention interval, and the age of the Ss, produced similar relative probabilities of recall, whereas recognition and prompted recall produced relative probabilities of recall that were different from each other and from the free-recall tasks. A review of the prose literature was undertaken to test the generality of these results. For the 12 studies that manipulated retention interval, an average of 21% of the variance was accounted for by the main effect of retention interval, 17% by the main effect of units, and only 2% by the retention interval by units interaction. Similarly, for the 12 studies that varied the age of the Ss, 6% of the variance was accounted for by the main effect of age, 32% by the main effect of units, and only 1% by the interaction of age by units. (80 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Illustrations, analogies, and facilitative transfer in prose learning.

Five groups of a total of 80 undergraduates received 5 different initial passages which could be characterized as abstract with illustrations, abstract with analogies, concrete, unembellished abstract, or a control passage. The 1st 4 passages were concerned with heat flow or electrical conductivity, while the control passage was concerned with an unrelated topic. The groups then received an abstract 2nd passage concerned with a topic different from the initial passage (e.g., electrical conductivity given initial heat flow). Results support the prediction, based on assumptions about knowledge structures, that the 1st 3 groups above would recall significantly more from the 2nd passage than would the latter 2 groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Information processing as problem solving: A collaborative approach to dealing with students exhibiting insufficient competence.

Although psychologists involved in the training of graduate students understand the importance of responding effectively to exhibited insufficient clinical competence, the extant literature offers little guidance on how best to make decisions during this process. The authors propose an adaptation of the information processing approach to problem solving applied to guide faculty in addressing student behaviors. Each of the steps will be discussed, along with their implications and our recommendations. A case example is presented to illustrate how that approach can be used by faculty. Finally, the authors discuss broader research and professional implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Control of prose processing via instructional and typographical cues.

176 undergraduates studied an informative text about an imaginary solar system. Two cuing systems, 1 instructional and 1 typographical, were manipulated to induce a single or double set of cues consistent with 1 or 2 sets of text propositions, respectively, or no cues, a treatment in which target propositions were unspecified. The main findings are that (a) a single set of cues elevated recall of cue-related propositions at the expense of cue-unrelated propositions; (b) the presence of 2 sets of conflicting cues attenuated recall of target information; (c) in the absence of cues, recall was best for propositions that were designated as important by the learners; and (d) recall was enhanced when propositions were located in neighborhoods of topically related information. These findings support the notion that cuing systems guide the construction and implementation of learners' prose-processing decision criteria. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive processing capacity and learning-mode effects in prose learning.

Studied cognitive processing capacity (CPC) and learning-mode effects on prose learning in 2 experiments with 213 undergraduates. Results of Exp I showed high-CPC Ss to have a distinct advantage over low-CPC Ss. Also, programed instruction (PI) was found to be better than control, chunking study outline, and adjunct questions on immediate and delayed posttests. However, substantial CPC and performance correlations and poor long-term retention indicated that PI may not be best for low-CPC students. Exp II confirmed this possibility. A viable alternative was found to be a chunking PI (CPI), which combined the best features of PI and chunking study outline. Also, the CPI overcomes some of the common criticisms leveled against other types of PI. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Levels of processing: Effect of number of decisions on prose recall.

Examined differential recall of prose materials as a function of the number of decisions made about the content during reading. It was hypothesized that number of decisions would provide a means of enhancing recall and of operationally defining levels of processing. Exp I with 14 undergraduates varied the number of decisions made about a prose passage. Exp II with 30 undergraduates attempted to resolve alternative explanations to numbers of decisions (i.e., redundancy of processing and time differences spent by readers with each question). The effect of decisions on recall according to where in the passage decisions were based was investigated in Exp III using 15 undergraduates. The results indicate that (a) recall is increased as the number of decisions is increased, (b) the effects on recall are noted only in conditions requiring decisions, and (c) recall of superordinate information, along with associated subordinate information, is enhanced beyond what is obtained by decisions based upon subordinate information. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The use of mobile telephones as adjuncts to cognitive behavioral psychotherapy.

Despite the rapid proliferation of technological adjuncts in cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), much of this development appears to have occurred on an ad hoc basis and in many cases has resulted in applications that are beyond the resources of most practicing clinicians. The authors delineate the specific areas in which CBT can be augmented through use of technology and outline the characteristics of an ideal therapy augmentor. Mobile telephones are identified as a low-cost and accessible device whose use has been largely untapped to date. The existing literature on use of the mobile phone is reviewed, and potential areas for its application in CBT are examined. The authors conclude with clinical guidelines for its use and the recommendation that use of mobile phones in CBT is a promising avenue for both clinical practice and research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Within-story recalls and the retention of ideas in prose processing.

Examined the facilitatory effect of within-story recalls on later recalls as a function of the interval elapsed between presentation of a to-be-recalled idea and its 1st recall, using 75 undergraduates. Results show that (1) specific ideas contained in a prose passage were forgotten rapidly during story presentation, (2) only those ideas that were successfully recalled during story presentation were likely to be recalled on later tests, and (3) the probability of a later recall given a successful within-story recall increased with retention interval. Findings suggest that frequent test questions, interspersed while listening to or reading an expository passage, were most beneficial for long-term retention. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of processing objectives on the recall of prose material.

216 undergraduates read a prose passage describing a home and its surroundings with either a specific objective (i.e., to consider the information from the viewpoint of either a burglar or a home buyer) or a more general one (to form an impression of the situation). After reading the passage, they reconsidered the information with either the same specific objective, a different specific objective, or a more general goal in mind. Ss also were unexpectedly asked to recall the information they had read. Considering the information with a specific objective in mind at the time it was presented increased the recall of goal-relevant (GR) material and decreased the recall of goal-irrelevant (GIR) material. However, reconsidering the information with a specific goal in mind after it had been received did not have these effects. Instead, Ss' recall of both GR and GIR material was increased by reconsidering the information for the same specific purpose they had had when they initially read it. Implications for the effects of information-processing objectives on selective attention and encoding, incidental learning, and the availability of retrieval cues for recalling individual aspects of the information one receives are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Retaliation as a response to procedural unfairness: A self-regulatory approach.

When does procedural unfairness result in retaliation, and why do recipients of unfair treatment sometimes pursue and other times inhibit retaliation? Five studies addressed these questions. The authors proposed and found that regulatory focus moderates retaliation against an unfairness-enacting authority: Promotion-focus participants were more likely to retaliate than prevention-focus participants. Promotion focus was associated with, and also heightened the accessibility of, the individual self. In turn, individual-self accessibility influenced retaliation. In fact, prevention-focus participants were as retaliatory as promotion-focus participants under conditions of high individual-self accessibility. Implications for the procedural fairness and regulatory focus literatures are discussed, and suggestions for future research are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of structural schema training and text organization on expository prose processing.

Two experiments, with 157 undergraduates, assessed the effects of structural schema training and text organization on the comprehension and recall of scientific prose. As a preliminary step, a structural schema specifying the categories of knowledge important to understanding a scientific theory was developed. This schema was subsequently used as a prose processing aid in the 2 experiments. Results indicate that training Ss in the use of this schema significantly facilitated recall of scientific text. It was found in the 2nd experiment that organizing the presentation sequence of the major concepts of a passage according to this structural schema significantly improved subsequent recall for main ideas on free- and cued-recall measures in comparison to an alternative presentation sequence. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A therapeutic jurisprudence approach to the legal processing of domestic violence cases.

Ample research indicates that the laws, policies, and legal actors involved in domestic violence cases can achieve iatrogenic or therapeutic effects on both offenders and victims. This article explores the ways in which the legal system reinforces maladaptive behavior by offenders and victims and how it can influence changes in such behavior through legal mechanisms. The therapeutic jurisprudence perspective is used to examine the psychology of offenders who commit domestic violence crimes in Part I. Part II explores the psychology of domestic violence victims. Part III covers the impact of the arrest and prosecution stages of the criminal justice system. Trials, plea bargains, and sentencing issues are explored in Part IV, and the use of restraining orders is explored in Part V. These issues and the therapeutic jurisprudence perspective can inform law reform efforts, criminal justice policy, and mental health policy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teachers as leaders: A moderator variable approach.

A review of research on teachers as leaders shows that current approaches have produced unclear and inconsistent results. A new approach—viewing teachers in a situational context—is suggested. 155 students filled out 2 questionnaires; the 1st (administered during the 5th wk of class) contained measures of teacher leadership behavior and student role clarity, and the 2nd (administered during the 10th wk) measured overall student satisfaction with the class. Student performance was also assessed at the 10th wk. It was found that (a) student performance significantly correlated with teacher supportiveness and directiveness under low role clarity but not high role clarity, and (b) the differences in these correlations were statistically significant. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Do as I do, not as I say: A behavior-analytic approach to supervision.

There is a limited amount of empirical data on how to train therapists. This article first presents limitations in commonly used training procedures. It then describes a training methodology based on contingent shaping, using video feedback to increase responsiveness to the ongoing client-therapist interactions. The approach attempts to overcome some of the problems encountered when teaching therapy by using primarily rule-governed or direct instruction. The authors describe the therapeutic approach used in this research, provide a clinical illustration of the training procedure, and discuss the role direct instruction plays in this training model. A methodology for determining whether the therapist's behavior changes as a result of training is described, as well as a method for identifying the relationship between the therapist's behavior and subsequent changes in client responding. This methodology is broadly applicable and can be empirically tested and compared with other approaches for its utility in training therapist effectiveness and changing client behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schools as team-based organizations: A structure-process-outcomes approach.

The present study addressed the issue of teams in schools and the ways in which they contribute to school effectiveness. Specifically, the present research suggested an input (frequency of meetings and functional heterogeneity)-process (interaction processes of exchanging information, learning, motivating, and negotiating)-outcome (team performance and innovation) model for predicting school effectiveness. Two hundred twenty-four school teams (including team coordinators, team members, and school principals) were surveyed. The results indicated that, regarding team innovation, frequency of meetings and functional heterogeneity were positively associated with the 4 interaction processes, which in turn fostered team innovation. However, regarding team performance, the results indicated that only frequency of meetings was positively associated with the interaction process of exchanging information, which in turn enhanced team performance. The findings serve to draw important theoretical and practical conclusions as to the best ways to structure schools and to improve their interaction processes for the enhancement of team performance and team innovation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social support and relapse prevention training as adjuncts to a televised smoking-cessation intervention.

Smokers registering for a televised cessation program who also expressed interest in joining a support group and who had a nonsmoking buddy were randomly assigned to 3 conditions: no-contact control, discussion, and social support. All Ss received a self-help manual and were encouraged to watch the daily TV program. Ss in the discussion and support conditions were scheduled to attend 3 group meetings (one with a buddy). Social support Ss and buddies received training in support and relapse prevention. A 4th analysis group was composed of Ss who failed to attend any of the scheduled meetings (no shows). There were strong group effects at the end of treatment. Abstinence rates were highest in the social support group, followed, in order, by the discussion group, no-shows, and no-contact controls. The social support group improved outcome by increasing both the level of support and program material use (reading the manual and watching TV). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Retention of prose materials as a function of postacquisition testing.

One-wk prose retention was examined as a function of 4 activities immediately following reading. 24 Ss served in each of 7 conditions. Completion questions as an immediate activity with knowledge of results produced significantly better delayed retention than did questions without knowledge of results or presentation of statements equivalent in information to the questions with knowledge of results. These 3 conditions yielded performance significantly superior to the nonactivity control. Knowledge of results did not increase retention for correctly answered immediate questions, and it significantly increased delayed performance for immediate questions incorrectly answered. The immediate activity facilitation findings were attributed to 2 processes, practice at retrieval of stored information and addition of answers to items not recallable immediately after reading. No delayed retention difference occurred between passage information and equivalent randomly presented statements. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A theory of intelligence as processing: Implications for society.

Defining intelligence as processing allows one to predict intelligence from infancy, discover causes of mental retardation, test the intelligence of people with disabilities, develop culture-fair tests of intelligence, and demonstrate that groups that differ in IQ do not necessarily differ in intelligence. An early estimate of intellectual disability allows a child to qualify quickly for remedial programs. Economic and emotional benefits would ensue from discovering and eliminating the causes of a small percentage of cases of mental retardation. The measurement of intelligence as processing reveals intellectual strengths that may otherwise be masked by physical or emotional disability or by cultural circumstances. Cultures may differ in the types of knowledge their members have but not in how well they process. Cultures may account for racial differences in IQ. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)