Non-destructive evaluation of plasma sprayed functionally graded thermal barrier coatings

Acoustic emission (AE) as a non-destructive evaluation technique has recently been used in a number of studies to investigate the performance and failure behavior of plasma sprayed thermal barrier coatings. The mechanism of coating failure is complex, especially when considering the composite nature of the coating. In the present paper, the thermal shock tests with in situ acoustic emission are used to study the cracking behavior of plasma sprayed functionally graded thermal barrier coatings. Each thermal cycle consists of 8 min heating in the furnace at 1000°C and 8 min cooling from 1000°C to the room temperature by a compressed air jet. The AE signals are recorded during the quench stage. Three, four and five layer functionally graded coatings have been tested. The results show that the five layer functionally graded coatings appear to have the best thermal shock resistance in the specimens tested, because of the gradual changes in material properties. Higher AE energy counts and cumulative counts recorded by the tests are associated with the macro-crack initiation and growth. On the other hand, micro cracking and phase transformation only give rise to lower AE signals.     

HTPB推进剂温度冲击环境下损伤特性的声发射试验

为研究HTPB推进剂在温度冲击环境条件下的损伤情况,采用单轴定速拉伸声发射（AE）试验,对不同温度冲击周期试验后的HTPB推进剂的损伤特性进行了研究。结果表明：温度冲击后的HTPB推进剂单轴拉伸存在损伤成核、扩展和汇合断裂三个失效阶段;随温度冲击周期的增加,HTPB推进剂释放出的AE累积能量减少,说明在其内部会出现一定损伤,且损伤程度与温度冲击时间呈正相关性;温度冲击时间越长,损伤门槛值提前,越容易出现初始损伤。     

飞机关键零部件疲劳损伤的声发射实时监测

某型飞机的水平尾翼试验过程是在强冲击、高振动背景噪声下进行的。对处于不可接近位置的关键零部件（半轴）的疲劳损伤实施了声发射监测。基于对模拟测试信号的分析,提出信号数据的预处理原则,提高了数据的信噪比。声发射信号特征参数的趋势分析和关联分析方法,充分反映了关键零部件的疲劳损伤过程,采用声发射实时监测飞机关键零部件的疲劳损伤是可行的。     

Investigation of acoustic emission signals under a simulative environment of grinding burn

Grinding burn is a common phenomenon of thermal damage that has been one of the main constraints in grinding in respect of high efficiency and quality. An acoustic emission (AE) technique was tried in an attempt to identify grinding burn on-line. However, the AE features of grinding burn are relatively weak and are easily obscured by other AE sources. This paper presents an investigation of the AE features of the thermal expansion induced by laser irradiation, which was designed to simulate grinding thermal behaviour. By using wavelet packet transforms, AE features at the grinding burn temperature can successfully be extracted without other mechanical interferential factors. Such thermal AE features provide a firm foundation for analysing and monitoring the AE features of grinding burn.     

声发射技术在氧化膜破裂监测中的应用

在高温腐蚀领域,声发射技术是一种最有效且具有极高灵敏度的监测氧化膜破裂的技术.通过分析声发射计数,可以判断氧化膜首次发生破裂的时间及最后破裂的程度.如对声发射频谱进行分析,则可以判别氧化膜内发生塑性变形、开裂及剥落的过程.利用声发射技术还可以测量氧化膜/合金界面处预存物理缺陷大小及分布.此外,将声发射技术与其它技术结合,可建立全新的分析测试系统.综述了声发射技术用于监测氧化膜破裂的原理和方法,以及多种性能测试方面的应用与新发展.     

AE Monitoring and Analysis of HVOF Thermal Spraying Process

This work presents an in situ monitoring of HVOF thermal spraying process through an acoustic emission (AE) technique in an industrial coating chamber. Single layer thermal spraying on substrate was carried out through slits. Continuous multilayer thermal spraying onto the sample without slit was also conducted. The AE was measured using a broadband piezoelectric AE sensor positioned on the back of the substrate. A mathematical model has been developed to determine the total kinetic energy of particles impacting the substrate through slits. Results of this work demonstrate that AE associated with particle impacts can be used for in situ monitoring of coating process. Results also show that the amplitude and AE energy is related to the spray gun transverse speed and the oxy-fuel pressure. The measured AE energy was found to vary with the number of particles impacting the substrate, determined using the mathematical model.     

某型飞机起落架收放试验过程中疲劳损伤的声发射监测

介绍了飞机起落架收放试验过程中其附属零部件疲劳损伤的声发射实时监测。在强冲击振动背景噪声下，采用声发射信号参数的趋势分析和相关分析方法，实现了对于多目标、动态对象的实时监测并成功地监测出作动筒泄漏故障和铰链磨损故障。所用方法具有简单、直观、快速和实时性好的特点，可供后续的全机疲劳试验过程中声发射信号处理或类似高背景噪声环境下的声发射监测技术提供借鉴。     

Study of the performance of TBC under thermal cycling conditions using an acoustic emission rig

An experimental rig based on the use of infrared quartz lamps has been developed to monitor the degradation mechanisms causing failure of thermal barrier coatings (TBC) under thermal-cycling conditions. An acoustic emission (AE) technique monitored these degradation mechanisms, and advanced signals processing identified the key parameters that classify the AE signals according to the long-term behavior of the TBC. The AE technique enabled the localization of degradation sources inside the TBC with a linear resolution of ∼5 mm by the use of two transducers fixed at both ends of the sample. Furthermore, sample zones of high AE activity showed typical vertical cracks at the surface and delaminations at the interface between the ceramic and the bond-coat layer. Vertical cracks were induced preferentially during the heating period of the thermal cycles when the ceramic coating was in a tensile-stress state, while delaminations were induced during the cooling period when the TBC was in a compressive-stress state.     

Laser-induced thermal damage detection in metallic materials via acoustic emission and ensemble empirical mode decomposition

A detection method of laser-induced thermal damage–surface burn, rehardening and residual stress, was studied in this work. Artificial thermal damage was produced to various steels, e.g., AISI 1045, ASTM A36 and AISI 304, by virtue of laser irradiation. The aim of the present work is to identify thermal damage through sensor and feature extraction techniques. Acoustic emission(AE) sensor and ensemble empirical mode decomposition(EEMD) method were employed for this purpose. A de-noising method was proposed to eliminate noises from original AE signals, based on EEMD. Quantified thermal damage features were obtained. Results evidenced a strong correlation between AE features, i.e., RMS value of the reconstructed acoustic emission signal, and surface burn, residual stress value, as well as hardness of steels. The present work could be used as a potential and indirect approach for thermal damage detection.     

Modal analysis of acoustic emission signals from CFRP laminates

As a result of its continuous and in situ detection capabilities, the acoustic emission (AE) technique is the prime candidate for damage monitoring in loaded composite structures. None of the AE analysis techniques used in laboratory studies has, however, proven to be capable of consistently dealing with the difficulties encountered in larger structures: large amount of data, the elimination of noise sources and the influence of wave propagation effects (attenuation, dispersion). This work will use the modal acoustic emission (MAE) technique as a more intelligent and efficient way of analysing AE results. AE waveforms obtained during tensile and bending testing of CFRP laminates will be presented. It will be demonstrated how taking into account the modal nature of AE waves can in future lead to more quantitative and accurate results.     

某型飞机飞行载荷疲劳试验过程中的声发射监测

介绍了某型飞机全尺寸机体飞行载荷疲劳试验过程中对关键部件(包括不可接近部件)疲劳损伤的声发射(AE)实时监测技术。在强冲击、高振动背景下,利用基于时间、空间、幅度或能量滤波等多种信号处理方式,对预处理后的AE信号以趋势分析为主,多参数分析综合验证,另辅以其它方法(包括波形分析),对一些关键部位的健康状态进行AE实时在线监测。成功预报了机翼对接区域某螺栓孔夹层裂纹的萌生,为保证机体飞行载荷疲劳试验顺利进行起到了重要作用。     

Kaiser effects in acoustic emission from composites during thermal cyclic-loading

Kaiser effects in acoustic emission (AE) behavior of composite laminates under repetitive thermal cyclic-loads are quantitatively analyzed to identify AE source mechanisms. The repetitive thermal loads brought about a large reduction, i.e. an exponential decrease, in AE total ring-down counts and AE amplitudes. It was thought that generation of most thermo-AE events during the first thermal cycle was not caused by crack propagation, but by secondary micro-fracturing due to abrasive contact between crack surfaces. For subsequent thermal cycles, on the other hand, a small number of weak thermo-AE events were generated due to frictional sliding contact. Such behavior of thermo-AE showed different characteristics according to specimen types and the maximum temperature in the thermal load cycles.     

高聚物粘结炸药热冲击过程中的声发射现象研究

通过水浴冲击对高聚物粘结炸药（PBX）进行热冲击试验，由于材料在热冲击下产生的热应力来不及释放，从而导致材料内部产生裂纹。利用声发射仪器对热冲击过程进行监测，获得炸药材料在热冲击过程中的声发射信号。研究结果表明，声发射信号能够很好地反映热冲击过程中PBX损伤的产生和演变，并能够对损伤位置进行准确的定位，从而为研究材料的热冲击损伤机理和模式提供可靠的试验数据和理论依据。     

管道声发射泄漏检测技术研究进展

声发射检测的目的是获得声发射源的有关信息(如声发射源的特征和位置等)。管道泄漏声发射信号既携带结构的某些特征信息(泄漏孔大小和位置等)，同时又有很大的随机性和不确定性，属于一种非平稳随机信号。在分析管道泄漏声发射信号特点基础上，着重对管道声发射泄漏检测技术及信号处理方法的最新研究进展进行了回顾。模态声发射能够解决常规声发射技术发展中的问题，是一种潜在的能够实现管道泄漏定量检测的方法。     

防喷器材料在拉伸过程中的声发射信号特性

用声发射技术研究防喷器材料ZG25CrNiMo裂纹试件的拉伸损伤与断裂行为。声发射仪器记录了ZG25CrNiMo裂纹试件在拉伸破坏过程中的声发射信号,运用声发射参数分析方法和波形分析方法对zG25crNiMo裂纹缺陷试件的声发射数据进行分析,得出材料在拉伸过程中的损伤类型以及各阶段所呈现的特性。试验结果表明,拉伸过程中破坏机制对声发射信号的特征具有显著影响,不同损伤阶段的信号频谱特征存在差异。     

Acoustic emission technique for online monitoring during cold forging of steel components: a promising approach for online crack detection in metal forming processes

The acoustic emission technique is a very promising non-destructive and online capable approach for the detection of damage events in metal forming processes. The feasibility of using this testing method for online monitoring of cold forging processes of the case hardening steel 1.7321 (20MoCr4) was experimentally proven. In this paper, exemplary upsetting tests under varying test conditions were continuously monitored to analyze the relationship between cracking and resulting AE as well as to determine ideal AE measuring parameters. Finally, the critical forming stage of an industrial cold forging process for manufacturing of drive bevel gears is examined by applying acoustic emission technique. Cracking and tool wear were detected by analyzing the distribution of the AE parameters energy, hits and amplitude over the forming process.     

Wavelet packet analysis for the propagation of acoustic emission signals across turbine runners

Acoustic emission (AE) signals propagated across turbine runners incur attenuation due to propagation distance and structure interface. Wavelet packet transform (WPT) was used to analyze the attenuation characteristics of AE signals. A series of experiments had been carried out on an HLA286a-LJ-800 Francis turbine runner and AE signals were obtained from standard pencil lead break sources. The experimental results indicate that the WPT technique is an effective tool in extracting the attenuation characteristics. The feature packet can reflect the attenuation characteristics of signals across the runner. As a result, the pressure on data transmission and storage can be decreased by extracting feature packet coefficients using the wavelet packet technique, which indicates the feasibility to apply the AE technique to monitor the running state of turbine runners on site.     

声发射源定位技术

综述声发射源的定位技术，详细介绍基于声发射信号时差测量的线定位和面定位技术，并分析影响声发射源定位精度的因素。     

Determination of cracking resistance of thermal spray coatings during four-point bend testing using an acoustic emission technique

An acoustic emission (AE) technique was used for the determination of the onset of cracking of thermal spray self-fluxing NiCrFeBSi coatings under tensile loading using a 4-point bend testing apparatus. These coatings were flame sprayed on 42CrMoS4 cylinders having different diameters. Two different post-treatment fusing processes, induction, and flame fusing, were used. Along with the investigations of the effect of cylinder diameters and fusing processes onto the cracking resistance of the coatings, the effect of the same two parameters on the residual stresses was also investigated. Results show that, independently of the diameter of the cylinder, the flame-fused coatings possess a higher cracking resistance than their induction-fused counterparts, i.e., that the strain to fracture is higher for the flame-fused coatings. A correlation between the strain to fracture and the residual strain in the coatings has been established. This study points out that the combination of an AE technique with a bending test apparatus shows some major benefits to obtain important information on the relative ductility of thermal spray coatings.     

Detection of breakaway oxidation and spalling in the oxide scales of 2 1/4Cr-1Mo steel using acoustic emission technique

The onset of breakaway oxidation and in-situ cracking and spalling of the oxide layer formed on 2 1/4Cr-1Mo steel have been detected by the use of the acoustic emission (AE) technique. Various AE parameters, viz., acoustic emission event counts vs time, acoustic emission counts vs time, and voltage level vs time have been used to detect these phenomena. It has been found that variations in AE parameters are marginal during heating at 600, 700, and 800°C, and a sudden rise in these parameters occurs during cooling. Increase in AE activity during cooling has been related to spalling of the oxide layers. At 900 and 950°C, a considerable increase in AE parameters (except voltage level) has been detected after certain times at the respective temperatures. By comparing with corresponding thermogravimetric curves, this increase in AE parameters has been attributed to the onset of breakaway oxidation. A very large increase in AE parameters during cooling from these temperatures has been related to in-situ cracking.