Information technology in government: The Sierra Leone experience

Abstract

This paper reports a part of the findings of a study commissioned by the Commonwealth Secretariat in 1987. The Commonwealth Secretariat—COMSEC—is responsible for the management of numerous development projects within the Commonwealth of Nations in what was the British Empire. The objective of this study was to find out the extent of use and impact of Information Technology (IT) in The Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana and Nigeria, with emphasis on the experience of government and its agencies.

The study took me to The Gambia and Sierra Leone on fact‐finding missions during May 1987. Approaches to the data‐gathering process were the use of a questionnaire designed around an Aide Memoire provided by COMSEC, and interviews. The latter of course contributed tremendously in getting the questionnaires filled—most of which were returned by post. With the greatly valued help of Professor S. B. Jaiyesimi of the OBAFEMI AWOLOWO University, Ile‐Ife, Nigeria, the project co‐ordinator, we were able to monitor and manage the entire process of paper development that subsequently led to the one‐week Seminar/Workshop held in Banjuls, The Gambia, in December 1987.

The Commonwealth Secretariat's permission to publish the paper here is gratefully acknowledged.     

OAM: an office analysis methodology

Abstract

OAM is a functionally oriented office analysis methodology which provides guidance in preparing an office study, collecting information from office staff, and organizing and presenting the results. It is well suited to semi-structured offices and provides the appropriate level of detail for making decisions regarding the design and justification of a computerized office information system. An evaluation of OAM by several using organizations shows it to be an efficient, effective, teachable methodology. OAM was perceived by users to improve significantly the functionality of office information systems implemented after an OAM study by comparison with task oriented study methodologies.     

Evolving the Project Management Office: A Competency Continuum

Abstract

Many organizations today have recognized the need for a project management office (PMO) to achieve project management oversight, control, and support. the PMO's role is to help both the project manager and the relevant organization to not only understand and apply modern project management practices, but also to adapt and integrate business interests into the organization's project management efforts. This article describes a five-stage competency model for the PMO.     

Effective Governance of It: Design Objectives,Roles, and Relationships

Abstract

This article describes the key roles and relationships in a best-practice IT governance design, including the roles and responsibilities of an IT governance council, the CIO, IT customer services, the IT project office, and several non-IT roles. the author argues that organizational readiness and stakeholder participation are critical success factors for a new IT governance implementation.     

Team building criteria in software projects: A mix-method replicated study

ContextThe internal composition of a work team is an important antecedent of team performance and the criteria used to select team members play an important role in determining team composition. However, there are only a handful of empirical studies about the use of team building criteria in the software industry.ObjectiveThe goal of this article is to identify criteria used in industrial practice to select members of a software project team, and to look for relationships between the use of these criteria and project success. In addition, we expect to contribute with findings about the use of replication in empirical studies involving human factors in software engineering.MethodOur research was based on an iterative mix-method, replication strategy. In the first iteration, we used qualitative research to identify team-building criteria interviewing software project managers from industry. Then, we performed a cross-sectional survey to assess the correlations of the use of these criteria and project success. In the second iteration, we used the results of a systematic mapping study to complement the set of team building criteria. Finally, we performed a replication of the survey research with variations to verify and improve the results.ResultsOur results showed that the consistent use team building criteria correlated significantly with project success, and the criteria related to human factors, such as personality and behavior, presented the strongest correlations. The results of the replication did not reproduce the results of the original survey with respect to the correlations between criteria and success goals. Nevertheless, the variations in the design and the difference in the sample of projects allowed us to conclude that the two results were compatible, increasing our confidence on the existence of the correlations.ConclusionOur findings indicated that carefully selecting team member for software teams is likely to positively influence the projects in which these teams participate. Besides, it seems that the type of development method used can moderate (increase or decrease) this influence. In addition, our study showed that the choice of sampling technique is not straightforward given the many interacting factors affecting this type of investigation.     

Coproduction in successful software development projects

ContextCoproduction of new products has been deemed successful in organizational partnerships by adding to the quality and scope of the product. Techniques that involve users during the development of software tend to mimic this environment, but differ in the type of product and internal client roles. The question is thus, whether coproduction improves the outcomes of a software development project as it has in other disciplines.ObjectiveThis paper evaluates how the coproduction relationship between software developers and users improves the outcomes of a development project. Coproduction is believed to improve outcomes when available knowledge is accessible and applicable to the objective of the development project. Should the relationships hold, coproduction approaches to development can be approached with confidence and improvements made by attention to the development and deployment of expertise.MethodA quantitative questionnaire related to the coproduction environment was developed for four variables to include coproduction, applying expertise, locating expertise, and project success. 128 users from development teams responded to the survey and represent a variety of industries, individual characteristics, and project sizes.ResultsExpertise is crucial to the success of a software development project and coproduction improves the ability to access and apply the needed expertise. In addition, coproduction directly improves outcomes.ConclusionCoproduction can be an effective approach to the development of systems in terms of meeting project goals. Additionally, the assembly of expertise on the team is an important contributor to successful outcomes that may be enhanced through effective selection of team members. The ability to locate the available expertise is crucial, indicating the value of team building functions to promote awareness of expertise location.     

Investigating dependencies in software requirements for change propagation analysis

ContextThe dependencies between individual requirements have an important influence on software engineering activities e.g., project planning, architecture design, and change impact analysis. Although dozens of requirement dependency types were suggested in the literature from different points of interest, there still lacks an evaluation of the applicability of these dependency types in requirements engineering.ObjectiveUnderstanding the effect of these requirement dependencies to software engineering activities is useful but not trivial. In this study, we aimed to first investigate whether the existing dependency types are useful in practise, in particular for change propagation analysis, and then suggest improvements for dependency classification and definition.MethodWe conducted a case study that evaluated the usefulness and applicability of two well-known generic dependency models covering 25 dependency types. The case study was conducted in a real-world industry project with three participants who offered different perspectives.ResultsOur initial evaluation found that there exist a number of overlapping and/or ambiguous dependency types among the current models; five dependency types are particularly useful in change propagation analysis; and practitioners with different backgrounds possess various viewpoints on change propagation. To improve the state-of-the-art, a new dependency model is proposed to tackle the problems identified from the case study and the related literature. The new model classifies dependencies into intrinsic and additional dependencies on the top level, and suggests nine dependency types with precise definitions as its initial set.ConclusionsOur case study provides insights into requirement dependencies and their effects on change propagation analysis for both research and practise. The resulting new dependency model needs further evaluation and improvement.     

A method for forecasting defect backlog in large streamline software development projects and its industrial evaluation

ContextPredicting a number of defects to be resolved in large software projects (defect backlog) usually requires complex statistical methods and thus is hard to use on a daily basis by practitioners in industry. Making predictions in simpler and more robust way is often required by practitioners in software engineering industry.ObjectiveThe objective of this paper is to present a simple and reliable method for forecasting the level of defect backlog in large, lean-based software development projects.MethodThe new method was created as part of an action research project conducted at Ericsson. In order to create the method we have evaluated multivariate linear regression, expert estimations and analogy-based predictions w.r.t. their accuracy and ease-of-use in industry. We have also evaluated the new method in a life project at one of the units of Ericsson during a period of 21 weeks (from the beginning of the project until the release of the product).ResultsThe method for forecasting the level of defect backlog uses an indicator of the trend (an arrow) as a basis to forecast the level of defect backlog. Forecasts are based on moving average which combined with the current level of defect backlog was found to be the best prediction method (Mean Magnitude of Relative Error of 16%) for the level of future defect backlog.ConclusionWe have found that ease-of-use and accuracy are the main aspects for practitioners who use predictions in their work. In this paper it is concluded that using the simple moving average provides a sufficiently-good accuracy (much appreciated by practitioners involved in the study). We also conclude that using the indicator (forecasting the trend) instead of the absolute number of defects in the backlog increases the confidence in our method compared to our previous attempts (regression, analogy-based, and expert estimates).     

Requirements communication and balancing in large-scale software-intensive product development

ContextSeveral industries developing products on a large-scale are facing major challenges as their products are becoming more and more software-intensive. Whereas software was once considered a detail to be bundled, it has since become an intricate and interdependent part of most products. The advancement of software increases the uncertainty and the interdependencies between development tasks and artifacts. A key success factor is good requirements engineering (RE), and in particular, the challenges of effectively and efficiently coordinating and communicating requirements.ObjectiveIn this work we present a lightweight RE framework and demonstrate and evaluate its industrial applicability in response to the needs of a Swedish automotive company for improving specific problems in inter-departmental requirements coordination and communication in large-scale development of software-intensive systems.MethodA case study approach and a dynamic validation were used to develop and evaluate the framework in close collaboration with our industrial partner, involving three real-life cases in an ongoing car project. Experience and feedback were collected through observations when applying the framework and from 10 senior industry professionals in a questionnaire and in-depth follow-up interviews.ResultsThe experience and feedback about using the framework revealed that it is relevant and applicable for the industry as well as a useful and efficient way to resolve real problems in coordinating and communicating requirements identified at the case company. However, other concerns, such as accessibility to necessary resources and competences in the early development phases, were identified when using the method, which allowed for earlier pre-emptive action to be taken.ConclusionOverall, the experience from using the framework and the positive feedback from industry professionals indicated a feasible framework that is applicable in the industry for improving problems related to coordination and communication of requirements. Based on the promising results, our industrial partner has decided upon further validations of the framework in a large-scale pilot program.     

An empirical study on the implementation and evaluation of a goal-driven software development risk management model

ContextBuilding a quality software product in the shortest possible time to satisfy the global market demand gives an enterprise a competitive advantage. However, uncertainties and risks exist at every stage of a software development project. These can have an extremely high influence on the success of the final software product. Early risk management practice is effective to manage such risks and contributes effectively towards the project success.ObjectiveDespite risk management approaches, a detailed guideline that explains where to integrate risk management activities into the project is still missing. Little effort has been directed towards the evaluation of the overall impact of a risk management method. We present a Goal-driven Software Development Risk Management Model (GSRM) and its explicit integration into the requirements engineering phase and an empirical investigation result of applying GSRM into a project.MethodWe combine the case study method with action research so that the results from the case study directly contribute to manage the studied project risks and to identify ways to improve the proposed methodology. The data is collected from multiple sources and analysed both in a qualitative and quantitative way.ResultsWhen risk factors are beyond the control of the project manager and project environment, it is difficult to control these risks. The project scope affects all the dimensions of risk. GSRM is a reasonable risk management method that can be employed in an industrial context. The study results have been compared against other study results in order to generalise findings and identify contextual factors.ConclusionA formal early stage risk management practice provides early warning related to the problems that exists in a project, and it contributes to the overall project success. It is not necessary to always consider budget and schedule constraints as top priority. There exist issues such as requirements, change management, and user satisfaction which can influence these constraints.     

An overview of contemporary office automation technology

Abstract

Technological innovations have, until recently, had little impact on the office environment. The advent of the microelectronic revolution has generated devices and mechanisms that support a wide spectrum of administrative functions and increase both the efficiency and effectiveness of office workers. This paper presents a state-of-the-art perspective on the newer technological aids developed specifically for the office environment. The speed and versatility of these aids is a tribute to recent innovations in the field of computers and communications.     

Teaching of a computer literacy course in South Africa: A case study using traditional and co‐operative learning

Abstract

The Department of Informatics at the University of Pretoria in South Africa has been involved in a research project funded by the Foundation for Research and Development (FRD) since 1996. The main focus of this project is to establish computer‐supported co‐operative learning centres in various rural communities. The case study described in this paper discusses a part of this project that was undertaken during 1998. The paper outlines the computer literacy course where co‐operative learning and traditional learning methods were used. A discussion about co‐operative learning and traditional learning, with specific reference to the implementation of the two methods at SEIDET, is presented. An outline of the research results based on a questionnaire completed by the teachers who took part in the case study, is given. Although most of the teachers preferred the traditional and known method of teaching that was used for the MsExcel part of the course, they indicated that they have learnt more using the co‐operative learning method.     

The development of a truck scale management system for the sugar industry in Trinidad and Tobago

Summary

The paper reviews a project on the development of a Truck Scale Management System (TSMS) for Caroni (1975) Limited, a State Enterprise which is seeking to improve efficiency and consequently reduce costs in its operation.

The paper also provides a background on factors which significantly affect process automation. The most important of these relate to the lack of awareness by top management of the varied use and benefits of microelectronics and information technology, shortage of relevant human resources and insufficient investment incentives.

Automation of the weighbridge was given high priority by Caroni's decision makers because of allegations of falsification of weights, the inability to get timely and adequate information for decision making and the labour intensiveness of the manual system. A project was undertaken to design, procure, install, commission and operate an unmanned TSMS at both factories using local personnel to execute the project. Caroni formed a multi‐disciplinary team from in‐house, a publicly funded research institution and a local supplier. The team designed the system (providing a number of options), assessed the technology, acquired a number of microprocessor‐based modules including load cell technology, bar code technology, magnetic card readers and modems, and implemented the system as two separate pilots. Software was developed by Caroni to integrate all these systems. The team was successful in demonstrating the fully automated system under crop conditions but it has not been implemented in completeness as the decision makers required additional trials.

Cane operators were trained in keyboard data entry and the users, including contractors, were taken through the procedures before the system was put on stream. Caroni has organized training programmes involving this new technology for its engineers and technicians, aimed mainly at integrating new technologies with existing skills. The system could be commercialized. One cane producing country has shown interest in acquiring the technology. It is possible to package the system and target it for applications in activities such as grain and cement weight controls.

Some of the spin‐offs from the experience gained from the project include the automation of Caroni's juice scales at both factories, proposed automation of the juice clarification, evaporation and sugar boiling, and automation of the laboratories.

The system has gained acceptance by all those who interfaced with it. Caroni has had no adverse reaction to the TSMS from the workers but for future automation projects would have to develop strategies of redeployment and retraining to avoid the backlash of resentment and opposition which could hinder progress.     

Donor‐funded information technology transfer projects: Evaluating the life‐cycle approach in four Chinese science and technology projects

Abstract

Information technology (IT) forms an increasingly important component of donor‐funded development projects, yet there has been very little structured analysis of the IT transfer process. This paper presents and evaluates a structured framework for analysis of IT transfer ‐ the information technology transfer life‐cycle ‐ based on a study of four Chinese technology projects. The life‐cycle framework helps to structure both data‐gathering and analysis, and it is used to highlight a number of shortcomings within the Chinese projects. However, several broader project and environmental issues are also identified that impinge on the technology transfer process. The life‐cycle framework must therefore be viewed within a broader contextual model, which is presented in the paper.     

Cross‐cultural science teaching: Rekindling traditions for aboriginal students

Abstract

The project Rekindling Traditions illustrates one modest way of addressing the under‐representation of Aboriginal people in careers related to science, a situation that arises from a colonial type of science education. Unless teaching materials provide a meaningful context to Aboriginal students (defined by their local community), and unless Aboriginal science co‐exists with Western science in the science classroom, many Aboriginal students find the science curriculum inaccessible. In a postcolonial science education, such as the Rekindling Traditions project, Western science content is integrated into the local community's Aboriginal science. Aboriginal content is not a token addition but an asset in the science classroom. The study's research and development (R&D) methodology is described. A team of six science teachers from across northern Saskatchewan collaborated with the author to develop teaching units and to improve their culture brokering skills with students (Grade 6 to Grade 11) to help students cross the cultural border between their community's Aboriginal culture and the culture of Western science.     

Active sitting with backrest support: Is it feasible?

Abstract

Ergonomics science recommends office chairs that promote active sitting to reduce sitting related complaints. Since current office chairs do not fulfill this recommendation, a new chair was developed by inverting an existing dynamic chair principle. This study compares active sitting on the inverted chair during a simulated computer-based office task to two existing dynamic office chairs (n?=?8). Upper body stability was analysed using Friedman ANOVA (p?=?.01). In addition, participants completed a questionnaire to rate their comfort and activity after half a working day.

The inverted chair allowed the participants to perform a substantial range of lateral spine flexion (11.5°) with the most stable upper body posture (≤11?mm, ≤2°, p?≤?.01). The results of this study suggest that the inverted chair supports active sitting with backrest support during computer-based office work. However, according to comfort and activity ratings, results should be verified in a future field study with 24 participants.

Practitioner Summary: This experimental laboratory study analyses the feasibility of active sitting with a backrest support during common office work on a new type of dynamic office chair. The results demonstrate that active sitting with a backrest support is feasible on the new but limited on existing chairs.     

Incremental multistrategy learning for document processing

This work presents the application of a multistrategy approach to some document processing tasks. The application is implemented in an enhanced version of the incremental learning system INTHELEX. This learning module has been embedded as a learning component in the system architecture of the EU project COLLATE, which deals with the annotation of cultural heritage documents. Indeed, the complex shape of the material handled in the project has suggested that the addition of multistrategy capabilities is needed to improve effectiveness and efficiency of the learning process. Results proving the benefits of these strategies in specific classfication tasks are reported in the experimentation presented in this work.     

Status of informatics technology in Tanzania

Abstract

The Indian cement industry has experienced phenomenal growth in the last decade, following the decontrol of cement in 1989. The degree of competitiveness within the industry has increased significantly. The industry scenario is changing rapidly from an era of shortages to that of surplus. The future scenario for cement industry is likely to be characterized by growing competition, significant corporate thrust on modernization, changing pattern of demand and uncertainties regarding prices as well as growth of demand in a liberalized economy dominated by market forces. Under such dynamic conditions and changing economic environment, the task of forecasting the level and the pattern of demand for cement becomes very important for the industry planning at a macro‐level as well as the corporate planning at the micro‐level. A computer based Decision Support System (DSS) would provide the policy makers with the necessary flexibility to analyze and derive meaningful demand forecasts for cement. Central to our DSS is a model base which has a rich library of forecasting models based on Time Series and Econometric methodology. This DSS is being used by the officers in the planning department at the Cement Manufacturers Association. It is also serving as a permanent model with enough flexibility to incorporate annual variations in the relevant factors affecting cement demand to generate revised and updated estimates on a year to year basis.     

Intelligent Transportation Systems Sites on the Internet

Abstract

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) promise to do for the driver what computerization has done for the office worker: make transportation more efficient. ITS will revolutionize vehicle guidance, navigation and safety by applying information technology to roads all around the world. Meanwhile, teams of researchers, governments, and industry organizations are working together to do the research and promulgate the standards that will implement ITS. The Internet has become the best method for finding the latest information on ITS in subjects ranging from federal regulations, to proposed standards, to product information. By publishing on the Internet, people can keep up with research from Tokyo to Leeds, and on subjects ranging from ergonomics to safety. In addition, the currency of information and the speed with which it is disseminated is improved, which is important for a field that is still growing rapidly.